Natural Science in Archaeology

1.3 The Ancient Authors 7
led to the discovery of many of the chemical elements. Modern scholars theorize
that the work in its present form is a compilation of notes, possibly those of a student,
and not the complete discourse. The absence of any discussion of metals leads
historians to believe that a complementary treatise on this subject was composed
and is now lost. Metals are only mentioned incidentally in the section on the touchstone
that references the ability of a given metal to leave a streak.
On Stones is composed of several sections that primarily discuss precious and
semiprecious minerals. It is a systematic discussion of stones (Sects. 37–47) and
mineral earths (Sects. 48–69) found in the Mediterranean region and the Near East.
His interest is focused on the properties of stones, such as their size, color, hardness,
smoothness, reaction to fire, their occurrences in nature, and their ability to attract
magnetically (e.g., lodestone, meteorite, and amber). Included is the first mention
of mineral fuel. He rarely mentions the magical properties with which the ancients
believed stones were endowed. A case that proves an exception to this rule is his discussion
of the so-called “eagle stone” in which he expresses his skepticism about its
magical qualities. Additionally, he devotes sections to nonminerals such as amber,
coral, pearl, and ivory that were classified by the ancients in the same category
as true minerals. Although he discusses the properties of “earths”, such as their
colors, the method of extraction of some, their ability to harden to the consistency
of stone, their association with metals, and their use as pigments, including artificial
pigments, earths are not the major focus of his treatise. Apparently an avid collector,
Theophrastus stressed the importance of observation and obtaining samples.
Compared to Aristotle, he was much more a scientist in the modern sense. He made
observations and dealt with facts rather than philosophical positions.
The new territories opened by Alexander’s campaigns furthered the investigations
of Theophrastus, and he acquired information on the minerals of many regions of Asia
Minor, Egypt, Nubia, and the Persian Gulf. Theophrastus was the first to describe
asbestos, which he said resembled rotten wood and when doused with oil would burn
without being harmed. He also was the first to describe the pyroelectric effect as
exhibited by a mineral which he called lyngourion. He noted its property of attracting
straw and bits of wood, due to pyroelectric temperature changes. Three hundred years
later Pliny gave this stone the Latin name lyncurium. Pliny kept the name of Theophrastus
alive in books 36 and 37 of his Natural History but On Stones was “lost” to
western scholarship for most of the Middle Ages. One Arab encyclopedist mentions
De Lapidus [the Latin form of On Stones] but there is no evidence it was translated
into Arabic. There are no known translations until the late fifteenth century.
1.3.1.2 Dioscorides (ca. 40–90 CE)
Pedianus Dioscorides was a Greek physician born in Cilicia (now part of modern Turkey).
He was a contemporary of Pliny although there is no evidence that they met or that
Pliny had read Dioscorides’ works. He traveled widely in the Roman Empire including
Greece, Crete, Egypt, and Petra in Jordan. In his travels he had access to the great
library at Alexandria. Although some of his information was second hand he strongly