Natural Science in Archaeology

216 9 Pigments and Colorants
Central Asia (Gettens and Stout 1966). Pliny notes the medicinal uses of orpiment
(N.H. 34.56). The name comes from the Latin auripigmentum meaning golden paint.
The orpiment used in ancient Egypt likely came from Persia.
Realgar. The mineral realgar, AsS, is a soft (H = 1.5–2), naturally occurring redorange
pigment. The name comes from the Persian rahj al ghar. It was used as a
cosmetic by the Akkadians (Forbes III 1965). Pliny notes the medicinal uses of
realgar and its occurrence in gold and silver mines (N.H. 34.55). Both orpiment and
realgar pigments break down on exposure to light. Orpiment whitens to arsenolite
(As 2 O 3 ), and realgar changes to yellow to orange pararealgar. A pot of realgar was
found in fourth century BCE ruins at Corinth, Greece. In Chinese alchemy, realgar
(but not orpiment) had some importance.
There is a related mineral called pararealgar, AsS, which is thought to be a lightinduced
phase inversion of realgar. There is some concern among art conservators
regarding its presence on paintings since it is not known if it was an original or
altered color (Corbeil and Helwig 1995).
Cinnabar/Vermillion. Cinnabar (HgS) has been used as a red pigment since
about 1500 BCE. It has been called “vermillion”, derived from the Latin “vermes”,
an insect that was used to prepare a red dye. Theophrastus reported two types of cinnabar,
likely true cinnabar plus red lead. Pliny knew about cinnabar but confused the
issue by calling it “minium”. He knew the Roman supply came from Spain, likely
the mines of Almaden. Ancient China also had an adequate supply of cinnabar.
Mercury sulfide (cinnabar) was extracted from silver mines during antiquity. Red in
color, cinnabar was apparently used from the earliest periods. Cinnabar is sensitive
to light, and the color blackens over time. Cinnabar has been found in a funerary setting
at a 5000-year-old site in Spain. It has also been discovered on human remains
found in Peru dating from about 900–1000 CE (Martin-Gil et al. 1995). According
to Pliny, the Romans regarded cinnabar with great importance and sacred associations.
He quotes Verrius who “gives a list of writers of unquestionable authority
who say that on holidays it was custom for the statue of Jupiter himself to be colored
with cinnabar, as well as the bodies of persons going in triumphal procession” (N.H.
33:36). Roman women used cinnabar as a cosmetic. Cinnabar was called “minium”
by Vitruvius, not to be confused with the lead oxide of the same name. In addition
to Spain and Peru, cinnabar was mined in Mexico, Egypt, Greece, and China.
Stibnite. Stibnite (Sb 2 S 3 ), sometimes called antimonite, is a fairly soft (H = 2)
mineral often used as a pigment and colorant in antiquity. It is lead-gray to dark
gray. It is known to have been used as an eye paint in ancient Egypt and into the
Classical Period (Forbes III 1965). The Romans may have also used roasted stibnite
as a glass colorant and opacifier (Mass et al. 1997).
9.9 Carbonates
Calcium Carbonate. Calcium carbonate, CaCO 3 , occurs in a wide variety of mineral
settings including calcite veins, limestone, chalk, mollusk shells, and coral.
The name calcite comes from the Latin word calx for lime. In a Bronze Age Greek