Natural Science in Archaeology

242 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells, and Miscellaneous Geologic Raw Materials
The medicinal uses of sulfur are recorded as early as 3000 BCE. According to
the Ebers Papyrus, Egyptian physicians used an ointment of sulfur to treat granular
eyelids. Another similar prescription was found on a clay tablet at Nineveh dating
to ca. 600 BCE. Sulfur occurs in association with gypsum on the Red Sea Coast in
Egypt, at Ras Jemsa, Bir Ranga, and Ras Benas (Harris 1961). Small fragments are
found in limestone near Cairo, and there are sulfur springs near Helwan. It has been
found in various connections in ancient Egypt. Mold-cast pieces dated to the Roman
Period were discovered at Qau and Badari, and small pieces dated to Greco-Roman
times were found at Tanis. Amulets in the form of rosettes, bullheads, and Bes heads
molded of sulfur have been dated by Harris (1961) to the Late Egyptian Period.
In Preclassical Greece, sulfur was used in both secular and religious purification
and fumigation. Homer also notes its “pest-averting” properties and describes
Odysseus’ use of sulfur to prevent disease in his palace after he killed Penelope’s
suitors. This factor was not lost on the Romans who used it as a lice preventative.
They also used sulfur in various salves and liniments. Pliny (N.H. 35.174–77)
notes the medical benefits of hot sulfur springs to treat rheumatic diseases. Ruins
of ancient Roman baths have been found around sulfur springs on both sides of the
Jordan River in ancient Judea. Nonmedical uses included preparation and cleaning
of cloth, bleaching wool, and as an incendiary weapon by mixing it with bitumen,
tar, resin, and other combustible materials. The method by which Romans refined
sulfur is not known.
Crystalline sulfur was used as a cement or filler in “hollow” gold rings found in
Roman burials (Eggert et al. 1999). This article reports that sulfur was the major
filler in Roman objects, has been found in some Hellenistic pieces, and in gold
objects through the Byzantine Period. It had gone out of use well before the twelfth
century.
After Europeans learned of gunpowder from China in ca. 1200 CE, sulfur gained
an added use since it comprises 10–15% of gunpowder. In the New World it was
found in the crater of Popocatepetl and was used by Cortez to make gunpowder
(Singer et al. II 1954). In the sixteenth century, crude sulfur was distilled; the vapor
was collected in large earthen vessels where it condensed into liquid sulfur. This
was then poured through a spout and solidified. Sulfur matches are referred to in the
sixteenth century (Singer et al. II 1954).
10.7.4 Mercury (Hg)
Mercury was known to the ancient Chinese and Hindus and was found in an Egyptian
tomb of about 1500 BCE. The Romans started to produce mercury in Spain
about the first century CE. In the Roman Empire, mercury was a by-product of gold
refining. Because of its chemical mobility, the extraction of mercury from ores is a
relatively simple process. Mercury distills on roasting, so a furnace with facilities
for condensation is required. Crushed gold ores were treated with mercury, and the
resulting compound was separated from the gangue by pressing it through leather.