Natural Science in Archaeology

9.2 Historical Background 203
imparted to vitreous materials in antiquity. The first method was by the addition of
relatively small amounts of the oxides of transition metals such as cobalt, copper,
iron, nickel, and manganese that became part of the silicate network. Secondly, colloidal
dispersions of insoluble particles were developed, such as those in gold ruby
glasses (see Chap. 8). The third method introduced opalizing agents for translucent
and opal effects (Newton and Davison 1989).
9.2 Historical Background
Pigments. Before artistic expression developed, early hominids must have simply
picked up lumps of colored minerals out of curiosity. The use of these materials as
pigments implicitly requires the ability to understand abstraction and symbolism
and thus to create art. Thus, the first use of pigments may be inextricably intertwined
with the question of when hominids became cognizant (Wreschner 1985).
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest pigments used by humans
were ochres, clays, and charcoals from burned wood and bone. The range of colors
included reds, browns, yellows, and blacks. These are the pigments found in the very
earliest cave paintings. The famous cave paintings at Altamira, Spain, and Lascaux,
France, were made 15,000 years ago using mineral pigments and charcoal. Earth
pigments were being used at least 300,000 years ago (Upper Paleolithic), and L.S.B.
Leakey stated that he found lumps of ochre at Olduvai in a context dating from more
than 500,000 years ago (Wreschner 1985). Probably the first mineral pigment used
was red ochre, in places as far apart as Africa, Europe, Australia, and Japan.
Pigments must have become important as exchange items almost from the beginning,
as exclusive access to mineral deposits could have contributed to a group’s
economy. As humans organized into extended social units, minerals and the knowledge
required to utilize them became part of a complex web of trade or exchange.
In many cultures, the use of pigments was important not only for decorative purposes,
but also for ritual and medicinal uses. The attribution of magical and therapeutic
properties to pigments may have originated in the associated symbolism of
certain colors. The use of pigments in cosmetics was not simply a matter of vanity.
Numerous ancient texts explained the ability of various mineralogical compounds
to empower individuals against adversaries, ward off sickness, and cure disease. It
is not surprising that, even today, cosmetics are sold in drug stores.
The artist’s palette expanded as civilizations formed in the Fertile Crescent, Nile
Valley, and ancient China. Colored stones including lapis lazuli, vermilion, and copper
minerals such as azurite were utilized in bright wall paintings. Advances in
pyrotechnology provided new ways to manufacture and alter pigments. Processing
techniques became more sophisticated as artists learned to create artificial pigments
such as Egyptian Blue.
Although some knowledge regarding pigment use in Egypt comes from ancient
textual sources, this information is sketchy. Most of what is known regarding
early pigment use is based on archaeological evidence. Early wall paintings at