Natural Science in Archaeology

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3.5 Metamorphic Rocks 59 that is completely cemented with silica can fracture through (rather than around) the grains, emulating metamorphic quartzites. Contact metamorphism results from the high temperature conditions in the area surrounding an igneous intrusion. Contact metamorphism of limestone produces marble. High-temperature contact metamorphism of basalts and andesites yields dense, dark hornfels, which has been used widely for stone axes and tools in Australia, New Guinea, Scotland, Wales, and elsewhere (Cummins 1983). Regional metamorphism is geographically the most extensive and mineralogically the most varied form of metamorphism. It is usually associated with largescale crustal deformation or mountain-building. Most regionally metamorphosed rocks have a characteristic laminated (or schistose) structure. The slaty cleavage of slates, the planar fissility of mica schists, and the somewhat irregular foliation of quartz-feldspar schists are all the result of regional metamorphism. Slates and phyllites are fine-grained products of even finer-grained sedimentary rocks that have undergone regional metamorphism. The major mineral constituents of these rocks are muscovite, quartz, and chlorite. Slates represent the lowest metamorphic grade. The slaty cleavage that is typical of these rocks has long been utilized to obtain stone with parallel sides. Figure 3.2 exhibits this feature in a modern slate quarry. With increasing metamorphism, slates grade into phyllites, which have a similar mineralogy, but the muscovite is large enough to impart a silky sheen to the surface of the cleavage. With more intense metamorphism, phyllites grade into mica schists. With increasing metamorphism, feldspar forms. The highest grade of regional metamorphism leads to the formation of gneisses, which are composed mainly of coarse quartz and feldspar. Fig. 3.2 Slate quarry, eastern United States
60 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Rock Raw Materials A number of slate cist graves dating to the first century BCE have been found in southwest China along the Min River (Tong 1982). An interesting, if minor, example of the use of slate, as well as hornfels, is for bracers, which are archer’s wrist guards. Bracers are made of fine-grained rocks and are found in many parts of Europe in Early Bronze Age burials (Woodward et al. 2006). Slate, even today, is best known as a roofing material. The use of blue slate as a roofing material in England dates back to medieval times (Jope and Dunning 1954). The hardness and cohesion properties of slate can vary widely, depending on the silica content and the degree of metamorphism. A large slate blade was found in Massachusetts. Its length was over 22 cm and it measured over 7 cm at its widest point (Smith 1945). Metamorphism contributes to making useful rock products by forming hard and durable quartzite from friable sand. Quartzite fractures conchoidally, allowing the same workability into sharp tools as chert and obsidian. Quartzite has been more widely used for chipped and groundstone tools than is commonly recognized (Figs. 3.3 and 3.4). Lower Paleolithic artifacts, from perhaps 260,000 years ago, have been recovered from the Diring Yuriakh site on the highest terrace of the ancient course of the Lena River in central Siberia. The oldest stratigraphic unit is composed of well-rounded gravel, mainly quartzite. It is not surprising that most of the 4000 artifacts recovered from excavations are cores and flakes of quartzite. Only a few were made from diabase or other siliceous rocks. Quartzite was the rock of choice for the tools used by Woodland Period peoples of the Appalachians to quarry and shape steatite for bowls and other objects. Paleolithic people in the Sahara used Nubian sandstone, a quartzite, for tools. Quartzite was also used in Pharaonic Egypt for statues and sarcophagi. Marble can be found in thick deposits of wide areal extent that are relatively free of cracks and easy to quarry. It takes a high polish. The chief drawback of marble is its high susceptibility to disintegration under the action of acid rain. Even without modern pollution, rain is acidic, because CO 2 dissolves in atmospheric water to create a never-ending supply of carbonic acid in rain. Marble was the preferred statuary and monumental stone of the classical world, and in Egypt it was used for vases. Fig. 3.3 Large hafted axe, quartzite, Boulder Lake Reservoir, St. Louis County, Minnesota, USA
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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Page 33 and 34: 2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
Page 35 and 36: 2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
Page 41 and 42: 2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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Page 45 and 46: 2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
Page 47 and 48: 2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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Page 59 and 60: 46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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Page 85 and 86: 72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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Page 105 and 106: 92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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110 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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186 8 Ceramic Raw Materials came th
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188 8 Ceramic Raw Materials dominan
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190 8 Ceramic Raw Materials (limest
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192 8 Ceramic Raw Materials and “
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194 8 Ceramic Raw Materials Chinese
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196 8 Ceramic Raw Materials in glas
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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204 9 Pigments and Colorants Hierak
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206 9 Pigments and Colorants The na
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Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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