Natural Science in Archaeology

146 7 Metals and Related Minerals and Ores
Western Europe: Tylecote (1986); Museo Nacional de Arqueologia Maritima y el
Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Arqueologicas Submarinas (1987); Salkfield
(1987); Bodega Barona (1991); and Hoffman (1991).
North America: Drier and du Temple (1961).
South and Central America: Lechtman (1980); Craig and West (1994); Scott and
Meyers (1994); West (1994); and Burger and Gordon (1998).
Near East: Craddock (1980); de Jesus (1980); Wagner et al. (1983/1984); Moorey
(1985); Muhly (1986); and Hauptmann and Weisgerber (1989).
Russia: Chernykh (1991).
Far East: Imai (1978); Chikwendu and Umeji (1979); Murowchick (1989); and
Biswas (1996).
Africa: Sutton (1983).
A now dated but useful field survey of Roman mines in Europe by Davies (1935)
should be consulted by anyone interested in early metal mining. The most comprehensive
recent account of early metal mining and production is Craddock (1995).
The mining of gold, copper, tin, and iron ores began in southern Africa about 2000
years ago. Miller (1995) has provided a thorough review of the mining history in
Africa (south of 15 degrees south latitude).
The early exploitation of gold and silver in India is attested in the “Vedic” literature,
which mentions rivers, indicating the gold was likely from placers. Archaeological
evidence puts the use of gold back to the Harappan Period, and it appears
gold recovery can be traced to the Neolithic in southern India. Lead was mined in
India prior to the Indus Civilization. Iron in ancient India appears to have been a
byproduct of copper smelting with a date of origin about the same as for the eastern
Mediterranean region: the end of the second millennium BCE.
7.2 Gold (Au)
The name gold is from Old English and common to many Teutonic dialects, but
the chemical symbol for gold is Au, derived from the Latin aurum. Gold was one
of the first metals to be used by humans, primarily because it occurs naturally in
the native, uncombined state. Gold is widely distributed throughout the world in
lode and alluvial deposits. Because of its high density, gold concentrates in placer
deposits. The first gold recovered and used was certainly shiny nuggets found in
active or fossil streambeds. Anyone at all familiar with ancient Egypt is conscious
of the Egyptian’s use of gold since pre-Pharaonic times. Although the value of gold
in early Pharaonic Egypt was not quantified, it was used by the Pharaohs to reward
persons deemed worthy. By New Kingdom times it was used as a means of valuation.
The Egyptians prized gold for its eternal sheen. There were 16 Akkadian words
for gold. This suggests that at least some of these terms reflect different colors due
to mineral additives or alloying (Lindsay 1970:214). Gold dust found along the
African coast is called tibir.