Natural Science in Archaeology

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4.1 Introduction 71 rock use in ancient Egypt, see Lucas (1989). There is a vast field of archaeological lithic materials. Here, we have concentrated on those rocks and minerals that those interested in archaeomineralogy are likely to encounter in Old World and New World contexts. The initial rock material for chipped stone tools is one that will flake in a manner that allows shaping by the removal of pieces by conchoidal fracturing (Fig. 4.2). Such rock material must be highly siliceous. A study of the lithic industries of the Early Lower Paleolithic sites of Nolhac and Soleilhac, Central Massif, France, are presented in Bracco (1991). These industries utilized granite, basalt, quartz, and flint. Field investigations of the Early Paleolithic in Africa have uncovered large numbers of spheroidal and battered spheroidal stone artifacts. There appears to have been a greater variety of rock types selected for implement manufacture than at any other time. These minerals and rocks include quartz, chert, granite, basalt, dolerite, limestone, ironstone, sandstone, quartzite, and gneiss (Willoughby 1987). Stone toolmakers utilized a very wide range of available raw material resources. The Stone Age did not end because the world ran out of rocks. In the mid to late fourth millennium BCE in Egypt, an influx of immigrants to the city of Gerza on the Nile, east of the Faiyum Basin, developed superior carving techniques for chert (Fig. 4.3), amethyst, carnelian, malachite, and imported lapis lazuli. For nearly a thousand years of the Old Kingdom and into the 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians mined turquoise at the Wadi Maghara in the Sinai. From the Twelfth through the 20th Dynasty, the Egyptians mined turquoise, chrysocolla, malachite, and azurite north of Wadi Maghara. The Maori of New Zealand used a variety of lithic materials for distinct purposes, for example, obsidian for cutting, basalt for adzing. They also utilized quartzite boulders for chipped stone implements (Jones 1984). One of the earliest lithic assemblages from Japan is that from the Szudai site, of Paleolithic (early Würm) age (Bleed 1977). These lithics were primarily rhyolite and vein quartz. Fig. 4.2 Quartz, showing (left) conchoidal fracture and (right) crystal faces
72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976) has presented a somewhat more restricted look at Chalcolithic stone tool resources in the Carpathian Basin. Takács-Biró has edited the papers from the First International Conference on Prehistoric Flint Mining and Lithic Raw Material Identification in the Carpathian Basin (1986), published by the Magyar Nemzeti Museum. In a wide-ranging book focusing on Late Neolithic flint procurement patterns of the Great Hungarian Plain, Biró (1998) covers what she considers 80 types of raw materials and discusses provenance, quality, circulation, cultural preferences, and means of identification. Major lithologic materials were obsidian, two distinct sources of flint, radiolarites, and quartzites of various qualities. Of significance in archaeomineralogy is that she shows that most of the raw materials needed analysis by X-ray spectroscopy or thin section petrography for positive lithologic identification. These analyzed materials now form a reference collection at the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest. Biró (1985) discusses the prehistoric utilization of Neogene rocks in the Carpathian Basin. For the western Carpathian region the great majority of geologic raw materials used during the Stone Age were of local origin. (Hovorka 2004) Obsidian and silex (high-silica) rocks, including quartzite and rhyolite, were of particular importance. Kozlowsky (1973) has documented the origin and distribution of the lithic raw materials used in the Paleolithic industries of the Carpathian region. A word of caution about the name silex. It was used by Pliny for the mineral quartz but in recent times it has been used in France and elsewhere for flint and any high quartz rock. De Fourestier (1999) lists more thasn 50 compound mineral names [besides quartz and flint] that begin with silex: for example, silex granatus Fig. 4.3 Chert knife with carved ivory handle, Gerzean Period, Egypt
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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Page 105 and 106: 92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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186 8 Ceramic Raw Materials came th
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188 8 Ceramic Raw Materials dominan
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190 8 Ceramic Raw Materials (limest
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192 8 Ceramic Raw Materials and “
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194 8 Ceramic Raw Materials Chinese
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196 8 Ceramic Raw Materials in glas
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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204 9 Pigments and Colorants Hierak
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206 9 Pigments and Colorants The na
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Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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