Natural Science in Archaeology

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7.2 Gold (Au) 147 Gold is widely distributed throughout the earth’s crust in small amounts most commonly associated with high silica (SiO 2 ) igneous rocks and quartz veins. Its exceptionally high density (19.3 g/cm3, over six times that of the average rock) causes it to concentrate in placer deposits (see Chap. 3). Its melting point of 1063°C means it can be melted and cast, and its chemical status as a noble metal keeps it free of unsightly corrosion. Gold and silver are commonly found associated in mineral deposits. Gold is about one-tenth as abundant as silver in the earth’s crust. Native gold normally contains some silver; if the silver content reaches 20%, it is called electrum. The atomic radii of gold and silver are both approximately 1.44 Å, so they are easily dissolved in one another. The earliest electrum used was probably natural, although, by Greek and Roman times, artificial electrum was in use. In his discussion of the origin of electrum coinage, Wallace (1987) points out that the early coins from Lydia and Ionia were struck only from electrum and that this natural alloy came from the Tmolos watershed, which includes the Pactolos and Hermos Rivers. Gold forms a complete series of solid solutions with silver, copper, nickel, palladium, and platinum. Many of these alloys occur in nature. Electrum is widely distributed and may contain up to 50% silver. Native gold may contain copper up to a maximum of 20%. Mertie (1940) and others have noted that “pure” gold is not found in nature but always contains some silver and copper and, frequently, some iron. Most scholars believe the first gold recovered came from placer deposits. There are approximately 900 occurrences of gold in Europe’s Bohemian Massif. Of these, about half are placer deposits. These placers have been exploited for at least 3000 years. Most placer gold is in the form of fine dust, but larger lumps, called nuggets, are found. Normal placer gold ranges in size from submicroscopic to the size of a pea. The most common size for placer gold is that of sand. The purity of naturally occurring gold is usually expressed in parts per thousand (ppt, 1000 is pure gold). Placer gold varies from 500 to 999 ppt, whereas gold in veins varies from 500 to about 850 ppt. Most placer gold is above 800. The purity of the gold also increases with the distance it is transported from the source. This suggests that some silver has been dissolved from the gold during transport. Both the roundness of edges and the flattening of gold particles show a rapid increase in the first 5 km transport from the source lode. The most productive fossil placer in the world has been the Witwatersrand of South Africa. These deposits were formed over 2.5 billion years ago within fluvial fans in shallow water. Ancient Egypt had gold and electrum in abundance. In the southern Eastern Desert at Barramiya and elsewhere, in the Wadi Allaqi region 90 km south of Aswan, and from Nubia to the south, there was gold in quartz veins as well as placer gold. The gold deposits in quartz veins ran down the length of Egypt’s Eastern Desert into Nubia. In Pharaonic and later periods, the Egyptians secured at least some of their gold from Nubia. Diodorus in his History (3, 12) gives an account of gold mining in Nubia. The gold-bearing region between the Nile and the Red Sea is shown in Fig. 7.1.
148 7 Metals and Related Minerals and Ores Fig. 7.1 Map showing known locations of gold deposits in Egypt and Nubia Some of the world’s oldest gold workings were uncovered near Varua, Bulgaria. This is the indigenous area of the Thracians, later noted for their exceptional gold work. Ancient Thrace included modern Bulgaria, the northern part of European Turkey, and bits of Greece, Serbia, and the Republic of Macedonia. Its boundaries were the Danube River on the north, the Aegean Sea on the south, the Black Seas and Sea of Marmara on the east, and the Vardar River on the west. The Thracians likely made extensive use of placer gold. The Strymon River on the border between Thrace and Macedonia is well known as a source of placer gold. The Thracians remained relatively obscure until archaeology in the early twentieth century brought their culture to light.
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
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2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
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2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
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2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
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2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
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2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
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2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
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2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluore
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46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
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72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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76 4 Lithic Materials source on the
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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94 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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Page 113 and 114: 100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
Page 135 and 136: 122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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204 9 Pigments and Colorants Hierak
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206 9 Pigments and Colorants The na
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Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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