Natural Science in Archaeology

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18 2 Properties of Minerals Table 2.1 Elements of the Periodic Table Actinium Ac Gold Au Praseodymium Pr Aluminum Al Hafnium Hf Promethium Pm Americium Am Helium He Protactinium Pa Antimony Sb Holmium Ho Radium Ra Argon Ar Hydrogen H Radon Rn Arsenic As Indium In Rhenium Re Astatine At Iodine I Rhodium Rh Barium Ba Iridium Ir Rubidium Rb Berkelium Bk Iron Fe Ruthenium Ru Beryllium Be Krypton Kr Samarium Sm Bismuth Bi Lanthanum La Scandium Sc Boron B Lead Pb Selenium Se Bromine Br Lithium Li Silicon Si Cadmium Cd Lutetium Lu Silver Ag Calcium Ca Magnesium Mg Sodium Na Californium Cf Manganese Mn Strontium Sr Carbon C Mendelevium Md Sulfur S Cerium Ce Mercury Hg Tantalum Ta Cesium Cs Molybdenum Mo Technetium Tc Chlorine Cl Neodymium Nd Tellurium Te Chromium Cr Neon Ne Terbium Tb Cobalt Co Neptunium Np Thallium Tl Copper Cu Nickel Ni Thorium Th Curium Cm Niobium Nb Thulium Tm Dysprosium Dy Nitrogen N Tin Sn Einsteinium Es Nobelium No Titanium Ti Erbium Er Osmium Os Tungsten W Europium Eu Oxygen O Uranium U Fermium Fm Palladium Pd Vanadium V Fluorine F Phosphorus P Xenon Xe Francium Fr Platinum Pt Ytterbium Yb Gadolinium Gd Plutonium Pu Yttrium Y Gallium Ga Polonium Po Zinc Zn Germanium Ge Potassium K Zirconium Zr
2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understanding of crystal structures and bonding is unnecessary in the context of this book, so only a brief introduction is provided. There are three basic types of chemical bonds: metallic, covalent, and ionic. The metallic bond is responsible for the cohesion of a metal. Metals readily lose their outer electrons, so the geometry of crystal structures is determined by the manner in which the positively charged atoms can be “packed” in space. The detached electrons dispersed among the atoms are freely mobile. This mobility is responsible for the good electrical and thermal conductivity of metals. The most stable configuration for an atom is one in which the outer shell of electrons is completely filled (see Sect. 2.3 for a description of the structure of atoms). One way to achieve this stable configuration is for two or more atoms to share electrons in their outer shells. The best mineralogical example is diamond, in which every carbon atom is surrounded by four other carbon atoms, each sharing one electron with the central atom. This arrangement is repeated throughout the structure. This type of bond is called covalent. Another way for an atom to achieve a completely filled outer shell of electrons is for it to gain or lose the precise number of electrons required to reach this configuration. A neutral chlorine atom lacks one electron for a filled outer shell. By accepting one additional electron it becomes a stable, negatively charged ion with a filled outer shell. Sodium has only one electron in its outermost shell. By giving up this electron sodium has its outermost shell filled and becomes a stable positively charged ion. Sodium and chlorine ions combine readily to give an ionic structure, bonded by electrostatic attraction. Each ion is surrounded by ions of opposite charge, the number being determined by their relative sizes. This ionic bonding is the most common bonding in minerals. Practically all minerals, except native elements (such as gold or copper) and sulfides, are predominantly ionic. The hardness of a mineral is defined as its resistance to scratching. Hardness was quantified by the Austrian mineralogist Friedrich Mohs, who proposed the following scale of relative hardness in 1922: (1) talc, (2) gypsum, (3) calcite, (4) fluorite, (5) apatite, (6) orthoclase, (7) quartz, (8) topaz, (9) corundum, (10) diamond. Each of the minerals lower in the scale can be scratched by those higher in the scale. The scale is not linear; in absolute hardness, diamond is three orders of magnitude harder than talc. Hardness does vary with crystallographic direction in a mineral. Hardness is an important diagnostic property in the field identification of minerals. In addition to the minerals in the scale, the following materials serve as handy references for the hardness (on the Mohs scale): fingernail: 2–2.5; copper coin: approximately 3; pocket knife: 5–5.5; window glass: 5.5; steel file: 6.5. Because there is a general link between hardness and chemical composition, the following generalizations can be made: (1) most hydrous minerals are relatively soft (H < 5), (2) halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates are also relatively soft (H < 5.5), (3) most sulfides are relatively soft (H < 5) with pyrite being an exception (H < 6 to 6.5), (4) most anhydrous oxides and silicates are hard (H > 5.5).
Page 1 and 2: Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
Page 3 and 4: Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
Page 5 and 6: vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
Page 7 and 8: viii Preface to the Second Edition
Page 9 and 10: x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
Page 11 and 12: xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
Page 13 and 14: xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
Page 15 and 16: Chapter 1 Introduction and History
Page 17 and 18: 1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
Page 19 and 20: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
Page 21 and 22: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
Page 23 and 24: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
Page 25 and 26: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
Page 27 and 28: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
Page 29 and 30: 1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
Page 31: Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
Page 35 and 36: 2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
Page 41 and 42: 2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
Page 43 and 44: 2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
Page 45 and 46: 2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
Page 47 and 48: 2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
Page 49 and 50: 2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
Page 51 and 52: 2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
Page 53 and 54: 2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
Page 55 and 56: 2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
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Page 59 and 60: 46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
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72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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76 4 Lithic Materials source on the
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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186 8 Ceramic Raw Materials came th
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188 8 Ceramic Raw Materials dominan
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190 8 Ceramic Raw Materials (limest
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192 8 Ceramic Raw Materials and “
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194 8 Ceramic Raw Materials Chinese
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196 8 Ceramic Raw Materials in glas
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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204 9 Pigments and Colorants Hierak
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206 9 Pigments and Colorants The na
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Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides
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210 9 Pigments and Colorants Eviden
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212 9 Pigments and Colorants 9.4 Ma
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214 9 Pigments and Colorants orange
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216 9 Pigments and Colorants Centra
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218 9 Pigments and Colorants Maya B
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220 9 Pigments and Colorants is cur
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Chapter 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells,
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 225 does not yie
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10.3 Salt (Halite) 227 Fig. 10.2 Di
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10.4 Natron 229 rituals. Its import
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10.5 Alum 231 times in Egypt. White
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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