Natural Science in Archaeology

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256 11 Building, Monumental, and Statuary Materials were exploited by ancient Romans. Because of its porosity, the stone is lightweight and is a good insulator. Tufa was used in some medieval cathedrals to fill the spaces between the voussoirs of vaulted ceilings (Ashurst and Dimes 1998). Called “Lapis Tiburtinus” by the Romans, travertine is a compact form of tufa. It was used by Romans to construct the Colosseum. Travertine was employed in the construction of monuments in Umbria, Italy, from the Etruscan Period to the Renaissance (Petrelli et al. 2004). A light brownish travertine was one of ancient Egypt’s most popular ornamental materials. Prolonged exposure to sunlight bleaches this rock to nearly white because ultraviolet light destroys color centers in the calcite that were generated by natural radioactivity in the mineral (Harrell et al. 2007). Onyx-marble stone is actually fine-grained calcite (Ashurst and Dimes 1998). It is generally not used as dimensional stone, but for decorative veneers and objects. Pure dolomite rock, composed of the mineral dolomite CaMg(CaCO 3 ) 2 , is rare. However, the mineral dolomite frequently occurs in limestones. Dolomites do not weather well in heavily polluted atmosphere (Ashurst and Dimes 1998). An interesting Devonian limestone with a deep black color has been used in inner and outer architectural elements in historic buildings in Kracow, Poland. The black color is caused by an admixture of bitumens and/or the alteration of pyrite. The rock releases an odor of petroleum if struck with a hammer. The properties of this rock – density, compressive strength, and durability under atmospheric factors – have made it a favorite building stone. Sandstone is a sedimentary rock formed of interlocking grains. When poorly cemented, sandstone lacks the inherent durability of igneous rocks such as granite. Sandstones that are well cemented by silica, calcite, or iron oxide make durable building stone. In the past, sandstone used for dimensional stone was quarried in much the same fashion as other building stone. In addition, stonecutters took advantage of joints, bedding surfaces, and type of cementation. Many sandstones exhibit layers called “bedding planes”. The orientation of the bedding planes in a wall is particularly important since they are potential planes of weakness. Thus, laying the bedding planes vertically may encourage exfoliation of the stone. Even when bedding planes are laid horizontally, differential weathering tends to occur along these layers, resulting in recessed bands. Pueblo sites of North America, like Mesa Verde, incorporated sandstone into the natural sandstone cliffs and grottoes. The ancient city of Petra is located in Jordan’s Wadi Musa, a canyon eaten into sandstone by centuries of wind and water erosion. The site is entered through a narrow passage known as the “syk”. Evidence of occupation at Petra includes rock shelters dating from the upper Paleolithic (10,000 BCE). However, the most famous and elaborate buildings were carved directly into the rock by Nabatean stonemasons in the first century CE (Fig. 11.6). In Britain, Durham Cathedral, begun about 1093 CE, was constructed of the local Low Main Sandstone, a fine-grained sandstone with angular quartz grains making up 70–85% of the rock. Other mineral constituents include feldspar, muscovite, and
11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 El Khazneh, Petra, Jordan, first century CE a small percentage of clay minerals. Carbonate minerals are mostly absent, making this rock more durable under weathering conditions. Interior floors and columns were made of marble (Dunham 1992). 11.2.5 Marble Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of recrystallized calcite (and/or dolomite). Some marbles contain a significant percentage of dolomite. The hardness of calcite is 3.0, and the hardness of dolomite is 3.5–4.0. Marble’s softness allows it to be quarried easily and cut or carved into columns or statuary with relative ease. The durability of marble surfaces depends to some extent on texture and composition of the stone, but more especially on atmospheric conditions. The compressive strength of marble is sufficient to support many times the weight of structures in which it was commonly used. Marble can be found in thick deposits of wide areal extent that are relatively free of cracks and easy to quarry. It takes a high polish. The chief drawback of marble is its high susceptibility to disintegration under the action of acid rain. Marble is not a hard rock and tends to wear rapidly if used on floors and steps.
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
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2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
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2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
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2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
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2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
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2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
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2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
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2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluore
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46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
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72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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76 4 Lithic Materials source on the
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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184 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.2 Cla
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186 8 Ceramic Raw Materials came th
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188 8 Ceramic Raw Materials dominan
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190 8 Ceramic Raw Materials (limest
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192 8 Ceramic Raw Materials and “
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194 8 Ceramic Raw Materials Chinese
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196 8 Ceramic Raw Materials in glas
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198 8 Ceramic Raw Materials 8.9 Fir
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200 8 Ceramic Raw Materials tiles f
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202 9 Pigments and Colorants This c
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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