Natural Science in Archaeology

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7.12 Oxidation of Metallic Ores 181 occurs as crystals and has long been called “fools’ gold”. An iron sulfide, it is easily distinguished from gold by its brittleness and hardness and from chalcopyrite by its paler color and greater hardness. It is ubiquitous in copper deposits and contributes to the formation of the gossan that marks most sulfide deposits. As far back as the Mesolithic pyrite was used as a convenient and portable source to strike a fire. The name pyrite is derived from the Greek “pyrites lithos”, which means “stone which strikes fire”. The names pyrite and marcasite (also FeS 2 ) were used interchangeably for centuries until the development of crystallography in the early nineteenth century. Early writing on the use of pyrite and marcasite as gem material shows that a good deal of confusion existed for hundreds of years between these two species of iron sulfide. Pliny refers to pyrite as “fire-stone”. Galen and Avicenna likely confused the species. Agricola considered pyrite to be a species between a rock and a mineral. Pyrite has been found in many archaeological contexts. The Maya used it to make mirrors. A unique piece of pressure-flaked pyrite was found in Alaska. The piece likely was used as an end scraper. When it fractured, a hole was drilled at one end and it was kept as an amulet (Potosky and Potosky 1947). The Aztecs used pyrite as inlays in mosaics and eyes in statues. The Inuit and others used it as a firestone because it gives off sparks when struck. It was also used to make amulets to ensure protection from danger or for good luck. The large copper deposits of Cyprus, exploited since the Late Bronze Age, are largely cupiferous pyrites. By the eleventh century CE, the Chinese were obtaining pure sulfur for gunpowder by roasting pyrite with coal briquettes. Platinum (Pt). Native platinum has a hardness of 4.0–4.5 and a density of 21.4. The Precolumbian peoples of Ecuador and Colombia may have been the first to make use of relatively rare native platinum, beginning late in the first millennium BCE and continuing until about 800 CE. Native platinum melts at 1772°C, so they developed a sintering process to make platinum-gold alloys. This metallurgy had no parallel in the Old World. The major gold-producing region in Colombia was also the only placer deposit of platinum (Scott 1992). With its high density, platinum, when released from lode deposits, would concentrate in placers. Ogden (1977) has reviewed the occurrence of platinum alloys in Europe, including in ancient times. Occasionally gold placers have been found to contain platinum group elements (platinum, osmium, iridium, and ruthenium) in minerals such as sperrylite (PtAS 2 ) and in natural alloys 7.12 Oxidation of Metallic Ores Near the earth’s surface, within the zone of weathering, metallic mineral deposits are altered by contact with water that contains free oxygen. Where sulfides are involved, alteration may extend to a considerable depth below the water level. In the upper zone of alteration, metal oxides and native metals are formed. At the lower depths, primary sulfide minerals are altered to secondary sulfide minerals that are
182 7 Metals and Related Minerals and Ores Fig. 7.13 A generalized cross-section illustrating the alteration of primary copper sulfides near the earth’s surface enriched in the metal (see Fig. 7.13). In deposits that contain sulfides but no pyrite, the changes are slow and may be inconspicuous. Galena (PbS) changes slowly to anglesite (PbSO ) and cerussite (PbCO ); 4 3 sphalerite (ZnS) is replaced by calamine [Zn (Si O )(OH) ·H O] and smithsonite 4 2 7 2 2 (ZnCO ); enargite (Cu AsS ) may remain unoxidized. The presence of pyrite 3 3 4 changes the whole trend of the oxidizing process. Pyrite (FeS ) rapidly breaks down 2 with the formation of sulfuric acid (H SO ). The acid then attacks the sulfide miner- 2 4 als and forms a gossan at the surface of the deposit. Oxidation is speeded up and is more likely to go to completion. Chalcopyrite (CuFeS ) changes to cuprite (Cu O), 2 2 malachite [Cu (OH) CO ], azurite [Cu (OH) (CO ) ] and native copper. 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 The cupiferous pyrite deposits of Rio Tinto in southern Spain are located in a region of sub-tropical climate with an annual rainfall of about 75 cm and a mature topography where erosion is minimal. These deposits have a heavy gossan of massive hematite (Fe O ) from 15 to nearly 30 m thick. The depth of alteration is gov- 2 3 erned by the groundwater level. The lower limit of the gossan is sharp. Below this is a narrow zone of leached pyrite, then a zone of enriched sulfide with the upper zone containing 3–12% copper, primarily chalcocite (Cu S). The depth to unaltered 2 ore varies from about 75–450 m. Shales may also host copper deposits. For a description of the important Zechstein copper-bearing shales of Germany and Poland, see Haran ´czyk (1986). These deposits in Germany were exploited in the thirteenth century CE and may have been mined as early as the second millennium BCE.
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
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2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
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2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
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2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
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2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
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2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
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2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
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2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluore
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46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
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72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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76 4 Lithic Materials source on the
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fo
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10.7 Other Geologic Raw Materials 2
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Chapter 11 Building, Monumental, an
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11.2 Building Stone 249 but large b
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11.2 Building Stone 251 Fig. 11.2 T
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11.2 Building Stone 253 reaches the
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11.2 Building Stone 255 “Basaltin
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11.2 Building Stone 257 Fig. 11.6 E
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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