Natural Science in Archaeology

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9.3 Iron Oxide Compounds 207 one – the mining district of Freiberg, Germany; group two – the mining district of Schneeberg, Germany; group three – no determination was possible from analytical data; group four – of those with Roman glass composition, some must have used (reused) ancient cobalt blue mosaic tesserae to color the glass. The Chinese were among the most advanced in early pottery production. Glazes first appeared in China during the Shang dynasty (1300–1028 BCE) (Medley 1976). During the Zhou dynasty (1155–255 BCE), craftsmen used feldspar glazes to mimic the appearance of jade. The Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) introduced lead glazes. During the Tang Dynasty, lead was used to enhance colorants to produce various shades of green, amber, and yellow. The use of an oxidizing atmosphere in the kiln produced the famous gray-green celadon glazes (Medley 1976). The Medieval Period was a time of enormous advances in the use of glass colorants, making possible the creation of the elaborate stained glass that was used to adorn European cathedrals. Copper was still used for red, but it was discovered that manganese could be used for a pale rose-red or pink. Craftsmen also learned to use modifiers to alter the color. Manganese oxide yielded a purple-brown color, while manganese carbonate produced violet. The addition of iron to the manganese produced black. The firing temperature had to be controlled carefully, since glass colors fade above 1200°C (Newton and Davison 1989). 9.3 Iron Oxide Compounds Iron oxides are the most universally employed pigments. They occur naturally in some form in nearly every region of the earth. Iron oxide pigments range in color from dull yellow to reds, purples, and browns. The hue depends primarily on the level of hydration in the mineral. Hue is also influenced by particle size, shape, and combination with other mineral compounds. The anhydrous varieties, such as Fe 2 O 3 , lean toward the purplish-red and maroon hues. Hydrated iron oxides, such as Fe 2 O 3 ·nH 2 O, lean toward the warm reds and yellows. The color can be modified by heating the pigment and driving off water (Pomies and Menu 1999). Iron oxides are extremely stable compounds that are resistant to alkalis, acids (weak to moderate), and to bright light. Table 9.1 summarizes traditional names for iron oxide compounds. Ancient references to iron oxide pigments are particularly problematic, and, as previously stated, it is best to avoid traditional terminology except when discussing historical texts. There has been considerable confusion in the archaeological literature regarding terms such as “ochre”, which has often been misused by archaeologists to refer to any type of red deposit. Furthermore, scientists have not been able to agree on the scientific delineation of traditional epithets used to describe iron oxides. For example, the difference between ochre and umber is a source of contention between some scholars (see Constantinou and Govett 1972; Robertson 1976). A complete history of the use of iron oxide pigments would fill an entire book. Nevertheless, a brief synopsis of the historic use of iron oxides and their associated
Table 9.1 Compounds of iron oxides Chemical composition Source Range of hues Ancient name a Geological name Traditional trade names Fe 2 O 3 , anhydrous iron oxide, silica and clay FeO(OH), hydrous iron oxide, silica and clay FeO(OH), partially hydrated iron oxide Natural earth Warm reds Haematitis (L) Rubrica (L) Sinopis (G) Natural mixture Warm yellows Sil (L) Ochra (G) Natural oxide partially hydrated Hematite Red ochre Iron oxide red Indian red Goethite, quartz, and clay Yellow ochre Raw sienna Reds Goethite Venetian red FeO, anhydrous iron oxide Calcined yellow ochre Light warm reds Goethite Light red FeO, anhydrous iron oxide Calcined goethite Reddish-browns Burnt sienna Fe 2 O 3 + MnO 2 + H 2 O with silica and alumina Fe 2 O 3 + MnO 2 with silica and alumina FeO(OH) + H O, hydrous 2 iron oxide aL, Latin; G, Greek. Brown earth Browns Raw umber Calcined brown earth Warm reddish browns Burnt umber Warm browns Limonite Brown ochre 208 9 Pigments and Colorants
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Natural Science in Archaeology Seri
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Prof. Dr. George Rapp University of
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vi Preface and Reader’s Guide ass
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viii Preface to the Second Edition
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x Contents 3.6.2 Placer Deposits ..
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xii Contents 10.4 Natron ..........
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xiv List of Figures 4.8 Predynastic
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Chapter 1 Introduction and History
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1.2 Organization of the Book 3 Sour
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 5 BCE) insc
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 7 led to th
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 9 process o
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 11 sources.
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 13 Fig. 1.1
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1.3 The Ancient Authors 15 wide kno
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Chapter 2 Properties of Minerals 2.
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2.2 Mineral Structure 19 understand
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2.3 Mineral Identifi cation Methods
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2.4 Color of Minerals 27 grains tha
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2.4 Color of Minerals 29 Fig. 2.4 T
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2.4 Color of Minerals 31 blue light
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2.4 Color of Minerals 33 Table 2.2
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2.4 Color of Minerals 35 changing t
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2.4 Color of Minerals 37 Fig. 2.9 G
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2.4 Color of Minerals 39 Halite is
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2.4 Color of Minerals 41 been named
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2.4 Color of Minerals 43 The fluore
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46 3 Exploitation of Mineral and Ro
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70 4 Lithic Materials weathering, s
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72 4 Lithic Materials Patay (1976)
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74 4 Lithic Materials Baked siltsto
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76 4 Lithic Materials source on the
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78 4 Lithic Materials In a highly r
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80 4 Lithic Materials The name come
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82 4 Lithic Materials analyses of C
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84 4 Lithic Materials 4.3.3 Felsite
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86 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.10 Maj
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88 4 Lithic Materials focused on ma
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90 4 Lithic Materials Fig. 4.14 Bas
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92 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and Ce
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100 5 Gemstones, Seal Stones, and C
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122 6 Soft Stones and Other Carvabl
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144 7 Metals and Related Minerals a
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11.2 Building Stone 259 Fig. 11.7 A
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 261 as ala
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 263 outsid
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 265 11.3.4
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11.3 Cements and Mortars 267 of sev
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.5 Mud Brick, Terracotta, and Oth
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11.6 Weathering and Decomposition 2
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References Accordi B, Tagliaferro C
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284 References Bishop R, Sayre E, V
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References 287 Connan J (1999) Use
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290 References Fleming S (1984) Pig
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294 References Heizer R, Treganza A
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References 297 Knox R (1987) On dis
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References 299 Lu P, Yao N, So J, H
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References 301 Mistardis G (1963) O
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304 References Phillips P (1980) Th
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306 References Rossi Manaresi R (19
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References 309 Stapert D, Johnsen L
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References 311 Uda M, Tsunokami T,
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References 313 Wen G, Jing Z (1992)
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316 References Chapter 4 Andrefsky
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318 References Singer C (1948) The
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320 Glossary Celadon Chinese stonew
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322 Glossary Lake A pigment consist
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324 Glossary Radiolarian Pertaining
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327 Appendix A Pigments Used in Ant
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Appendix A (continued) Pigment Orig
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index A
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index 3
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Minerals, Rocks, and Metals Index O
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Geographic Index A Abu Simbel, 137,
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Geographic Index 341 North, 56, 145
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Geographic Index 343 Pipestone Nati
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General Index A Abbsid, 128, 192 Ag
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General Index 347 220, 230, 231, 23
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