Natural Science in Archaeology

232 10 Abrasives, Salt, Shells, and Miscellaneous Geologic Raw Materials
Constantinople in 1453, alum became increasingly difficult to obtain. Shortly thereafter,
vast deposits of alunite [KAl 3 (SO 4 ) 2 (OH) 6 ] were discovered at Tolfa, Italy,
within the Papal States (Millard 1999). After the English Reformation this Papal
control became a problem for the English cloth-dyeing industry. This led to an effort
to establish an indigenous English alum source. Successful exploitation of the North
Yorkshire alum shales began about 1600. The shale was calcined and then steeped
in water to extract the soluble aluminum sulfate (Millard 1999).
10.6 Shells, Coral, Fossils, and Fossil Bone
Shell. The word “shell” originates from the Teutonic root skal (to peel off or separate),
the Icelandic skel (a tile), and Middle English schelle. Shell ornaments are
found throughout the world. Shell disk beads have been found in association with
ancient Egyptian sites, which were used until the 22nd Dynasty (Lucas 1989). At
Tell el Ubaid, an Early Dynastic Sumerian temple contains log columns inlaid with
mother-of-pearl (Delougaz 1938). A fossil shell was sculpted into a female form
during the Late Neolithic Period in southeastern Norway (Glørstad et al. 2004).
Shells have been exploited throughout history for food, dye, tools, ornaments,
trade goods, talismans, money, and ritual objects. They have proven to be important
indicators in both the natural geologic record and in the archaeological record. Shell
is composed mainly of calcium carbonate with small amounts of calcium phosphate,
magnesium carbonate, and silica.
Shells have been associated with ancient religious traditions and folklore
throughout the world. For example, in Hindu mythology, the shell of conch
(Turbinella pyrum) was carried as a trumpet by Krishna as a symbol of victory over
an evil demon, Panchajana, who lived inside the shell. Shell-working at Harappa
in the Indus Valley dates to the earliest levels, circa 3300 BCE (Kenoyer 1997).
Triton carried a conch (probably Charonia lampas) trumpet in Greek mythology.
Hawaiian legend tells of chief Kapuni, who had adventures while in pursuit of a
sacred conch shell (Charonia tritonis). Cowries were associated with the goddess
Venus in ancient Rome. Numerous Native American and African folktales and traditions
are also associated with specific types of shells. These are only a few samples
from a very long list. These traditions and myths sometimes elucidate possible ritual
associations in archaeological contexts.
Shells are one of the oldest items to be made into jewelry. Beads, necklaces,
and bracelets are found from the Palaeolithic Period in Europe, and necklaces of
shells were found in Predynastic Egypt. Shell was also used to carve reliquaries,
rosaries, and jewelry during the Middle Ages. Cameos were carved from shell in
both France and Germany from the early sixteenth until well into the seventeenth
century (McCrory 1988). In North America, shells were used as inlay in masks and
were often deposited as funerary offerings.
Spondylus shells and jewelry made from them were used by cultures in the
prehistoric American Southwest, West Mexico, Mesoamerica, and along the Pacific