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Rain Ottis Of the three models, the hierarchy probably takes the longest to establish, as the chain of command and role assignments get settled. During this process, which could take days, months or even years, the militia is relatively inefficient and likely not able to perform any complex operations. 5. Comparison When analyzing the three models, it quickly becomes apparent that there are some aspects that are similar to all of them. First, they are not constrained by location. While the Forum and the Cell are by default dispersed, even a state sponsored hierarchical militia can operate from different locations. Second, since they are organizations consisting of humans, then one of the more potent ways to neutralize cyber militias is through information operations, such as persuading them that their identities have become known to the law enforcement, etc. Third, all three models benefit from a certain level of anonymity. However, this also makes them susceptible for infiltration, as it is difficult to verify the credentials and intent of a new member. On the other hand, there are differences as well. Only one model lends itself well to state sponsored entities (hierarchy), although, in principle, it is possible to use all three approaches to bolster the state’s cyber power. The requirement for formalized chain of command and division of responsibilities means that the initial mobilization of the Hierarchy can be expected to take much longer than the more ad-hoc Forum or Cell. In case of short conflicts, this puts the Hierarchy model at a disadvantage. Then again, the Hierarchy model is more likely to adopt a “peace time” mission of training and recruitment in addition to the “conflict” mission, while the other two options are more likely to be mobilized only in time of conflict. This can offset the slow initial formation limitation of the Hierarchy, if the Hierarchy is established well before the conflict. While the Forum can rely on their numbers and use relatively primitive attacks, the Cell is capable of more sophisticated attacks due to their experience. The cyber attack capabilities of the Hierarchy, however, can range from trivial to complex. It is important to note that the three options covered here can be combined in many ways, depending on the underlying circumstances and the personalities involved. Conclusion Politically motivated cyber attacks are becoming more frequent every year. In most cases the cyber conflicts include offensive non-state actors (spontaneously) formed from volunteers. Therefore, it is important to study these groups. I have provided a theoretical way to categorize non-trivial cyber militias based on their organization. The three theoretical models are: the Forum, the Cell and the Hierarchy. In reality, it is unlikely to see a pure form of any of these, as different groups can include aspects of several models. However, the strengths and weaknesses identified should serve as useful guides to dealing with the cyber militia threat. Disclaimer: The opinions expressed here should not be interpreted as the official policy of the Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. References Carr, J. (2009) Inside Cyber Warfare. Sebastopol: O'Reilly Media. Denning, D. E. (2010) “Cyber Conflict as an Emergent Social Phenomenon.” In Holt, T. & Schell, B. (Eds.) Corporate Hacking and Technology-Driven Crime: Social Dynamics and Implications. IGI Global, pp 170- 186. Krekel, B., DeWeese, S., Bakos, G., Barnett, C. (2009) Capability of the People’s Republic of China to Conduct Cyber Warfare and Computer Network Exploitation. Report for the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission. Nazario, J. (2009) “Politically Motivated Denial of Service Attacks.” In Czosseck, C. & Geers, K. (Eds.) The Virtual Battlefield: Perspectives on Cyber Warfare. Amsterdam: IOS Press, pp 163-181. 312
Rain Ottis Ottis, R. (2008) “Analysis of the 2007 Cyber Attacks Against Estonia from the Information Warfare Perspective.” In Proceedings of the 7th European Conference on Information Warfare and Security. Reading: Academic Publishing Limited, pp 163-168. Ottis, R. (2009) ”Theoretical Model for Creating a Nation-State Level Offensive Cyber Capability.” In Proceedings of the 8th European Conference on Information Warfare and Security. Reading: Academic Publishing Limited, pp 177-182. Ottis, R. (2010a) “From Pitch Forks to Laptops: Volunteers in Cyber Conflicts.” In Czosseck, C. and Podins, K. (Eds.) Conference on Cyber Conflict. Proceedings 2010. Tallinn: CCD COE Publications, pp 97-109. Ottis, R. (2010b) “Proactive Defence Tactics Against On-Line Cyber Militia.” In Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on Information Warfare and Security. Reading: Academic Publishing Limited, pp 233-237. Williams, G., Arreymbi, J. (2007) Is Cyber Tribalism Winning Online Information Warfare? In Proceedings of ISSE/SECURE 2007 Securing Electronic Business Processes. Wiesbaden: Vieweg. On-line: http://www.springerlink.com/content/t2824n02g54552m5/n Young, S., Aitel, D. (2004) The Hacker’s Handbook. The Strategy behind Breaking into and Defending Networks. Boca Raton: Auerbach. 313
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The Proceedings of the 6th Internat
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Contents Paper Title Author(s) Page
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Preface These Proceedings are the w
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Biographies of contributing authors
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Department of Computer Science, IQR
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Using the Longest Common Substring
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Jaime Acosta Some techniques that u
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Jaime Acosta assigned by an anti-vi
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Jaime Acosta Cormen, T.H., Leiserso
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Hind Al Falasi and Liren Zhang tran
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Hind Al Falasi and Liren Zhang ther
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Hind Al Falasi and Liren Zhang the
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Edwin Leigh Armistead and Thomas Mu
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Deception Operations Security (OPS
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The Uses and Limits of Game Theory
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3. Limits to using game theory 3.1
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Merritt Baer Effective cyberintrusi
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Merritt Baer Report of the Defense
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Ivan Burke and Renier van Heerden F
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Vincent Garramone and Daniel Likari
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Stephen Groat et al. probability fo
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Cyber Strategy and the Law of Armed
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Ulf Haeussler Alliance and Allies r
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Ulf Haeussler following the invocat
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Ulf Haeussler NCSA (2009) NCSA Supp
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Karim Hamza and Van Dalen of respon
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Karim Hamza and Van Dalen From a mi
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Karim Hamza and Van Dalen productiv
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Intelligence-Driven Computer Networ
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Eric Hutchins et al. of defensive a
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Detection of YASS Using Calibration
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Developing a Knowledge System for I
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Tree of Objectives Acknowledgements
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Secure Proactive Recovery - a Hardw
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Cyberwarfare and Anonymity Christop
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Catch me if you can: Cyber Anonymit
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Data (Evidence) Removal Shield Davi
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