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CONTENTS 3.2.3 Non-universal aspects of the layered structure of the clause . . . . 32 3.3 Noun phrase structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.3.1 NP headed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4 Lexical representations for verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4.1 Agents, effectors, instruments and forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.4.2 change of state verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.5 Why we use RRG as the linguistic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.5.1 RRG representing the universal aspects of the layered structure of the clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.5.2 The lexical representation of verbs and their arguments . . . . . . 43 3.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4 Machine translation strategies 46 4.1 Advantages of machine translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.2 Computational techniques in MT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.2.1 System design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.2.2 Interactive systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.2.3 Lexical databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.2.4 Tokens and tokenization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.2.5 Syntactic analysis (Parsing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.3 Basic machine translation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.3.1 Multilingual versus bilingual systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.3.2 Direct translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.3.3 Interlingua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.3.4 Transfer systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.3.5 Statistical machine translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 4.4 Linguistic aspects of MT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 ix
CONTENTS 4.4.1 Non-Roman alphabet scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4.4.2 Lexical ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4.4.2.1 Category ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4.4.2.2 Homograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4.4.3 Syntactic ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4.4.4 Structural differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 4.5 Challenges of Arabic to English MT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 4.6 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.6.1 Generation in direct systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.6.2 Generation in transfer-based systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.6.3 Generation in interlingua systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 5 Design of Arabic to English machine translation system based on RRG 67 5.1 UniArab: Interlingua-based system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 5.2 Designing an XML lexicon architecture for Arabic MT based on RRG . . 69 5.2.1 An XML-based lexicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 5.2.2 Lexical representation in UniArab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 5.2.3 Lexical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5.3 Design of test strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 5.4 Design of evaluation criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 6 UniArab: a proof-of-concept Arabic to English machine translation system 79 6.1 Conceptual structure of the UniArab system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 6.1.1 Technical architecture of the UniArab system . . . . . . . . . . . 81 6.1.2 UniArab: Lexical representation in interlingua system . . . . . . 84 x
Page 1 and 2: A generic framework for Arabic to E
Page 3 and 4: sentence and its linking algorithm
Page 5 and 6: Declaration I herby certify that th
Page 7 and 8: advices, but also academically and
Page 9: CONTENTS 2.3.1.2 Indefinite nouns .
Page 13 and 14: CONTENTS 7.2.8 Limitation of UniAra
Page 15 and 16: LIST OF FIGURES 4.4 Difference betw
Page 17 and 18: List of Tables 2.1 Dual: merely add
Page 19 and 20: LIST OF TABLES 5.9 Test strategy: p
Page 21 and 22: 1 Introduction The following paragr
Page 23 and 24: high-quality translation technology
Page 25 and 26: 1.3. TECHNOLOGIES ditransitive). Th
Page 27 and 28: 1.4. THESIS ORGANIZATION 2009b). Ch
Page 29 and 30: 2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARABIC
Page 31 and 32: 2.2 Characteristics of Arabic words
Page 33 and 34: 2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ARABIC WORD
Page 35 and 36: 2.3. PART OF SPEECH INVENTORY OF TH
Page 37 and 38: 2.3.4 Verbs 2.3. PART OF SPEECH INV
Page 39 and 40: 2.3.4.2 Aspect 2.3. PART OF SPEECH
Page 41 and 42: 2.3. PART OF SPEECH INVENTORY OF TH
Page 43 and 44: 2.4.1.1 Verb and noun 2.4. SENTENCE
Page 45 and 46: Table 2.27: verb(V), subject(S) and
Page 47 and 48: 3 Role and Reference Grammar (RRG)
Page 49 and 50: 3.1. ROLE AND REFERENCE GRAMMAR LIN
Page 51 and 52: 3.2. FORMAL REPRESENTATION OF LAYER
Page 57 and 58: 3.3. NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE appropri
Page 59 and 60: 3.4. LEXICAL REPRESENTATIONS FOR VE
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3.5. WHY WE USE RRG AS THE LINGUIST
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3.5. WHY WE USE RRG AS THE LINGUIST
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3.6. SUMMARY there will be more com
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4.1. ADVANTAGES OF MACHINE TRANSLAT
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4.2.3 Lexical databases 4.2. COMPUT
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4.3.2 Direct translation 4.3. BASIC
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4.3. BASIC MACHINE TRANSLATION STRA
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would also be needed for an interli
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4.4.1 Non-Roman alphabet scripts 4.
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Figure 4.5: NP rule (NP -> det n pp
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4.5. CHALLENGES OF ARABIC TO ENGLIS
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Figure 4.7: Direct MT system 4.6.2
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4.7 Summary Figure 4.9: Structure t
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5 Design of Arabic to English machi
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5.2. DESIGNING AN XML LEXICON ARCHI
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5.3. DESIGN OF TEST STRATEGY Table
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5.4. DESIGN OF EVALUATION CRITERIA
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6 UniArab: a proof-of-concept Arabi
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6.1. CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF THE UN
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6.2. UNIARAB: LEXICAL REPRESENTATIO
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6.3. UNIARAB: GENERATION which mean
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Figure 6.11: UniArab’s GUI 1 6.4.
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6.4.1 Lexicon interface Figure 6.13
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6.6 Summary 6.6. SUMMARY We present
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7.2. SENTENCE TESTS to which standa
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Table 7.2: Test : Verb-subject; agr
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Figure 7.4: Verb-subject agreement
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Table 7.5: Test : gender-ambiguous
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Table 7.7: Test : Verb ‘to be’
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Table 7.9: Test : Verb ‘to have
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7.2. SENTENCE TESTS Table 7.11: Tes
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7.2.6 Pro-drop Arabic Table 7.13: T
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Table 7.15: Test : Intransitive 2 A
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7.2.7.3 Ditransitive Table 7.17: Te
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Table 7.19: Test : Ditransitive wit
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7.2. SENTENCE TESTS In a case where
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7.3 System evaluation 7.3. SYSTEM E
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7.3. SYSTEM EVALUATION search engin
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Now is not the end. It is not the b
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8.1. THESIS SUMMARY and so we hope
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and proving the suitability of the
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References Abn-Aqeal, 2007. sharah
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REFERENCES Salem, Y., Hensman, A.,
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Appendix 139
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• Yasser Salem and Brian Nolan. 2
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Arabic Letter and Phonetic Value Le
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C List of translatable sentences I
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she is an engineer. Zaid loves Fati
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Jack is eating with the spoon.
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Ayah tore the page. ֓āyh
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Eman saw Sarah. r֓at ֓iymā
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Carl is brushing his hair. ym
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I want a book. ֓aryd ktāb
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Omar gave the book to Khalid.
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D Verbs in lexicon Verbs in Arabic
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Arabic Example Logical Structure
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Arabic Example Logical Structure
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Arabic ys. rs. r Example the wheel
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Arabic ֓adrs Example I am teach
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Package: Name of Class Class Summar
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