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(4.1a) 4.5. CHALLENGES OF ARABIC TO ENGLISH MT S(NP(pron(he)), VP( v(saw),NP(det(the), N(girl), PP(prep(with),NP(det(the),n(telescope)))))) (4.1b) S(NP(pron(he)), VP(v(saw),NP(det(the),n(girl)), PP(prep(with),NP(det(the),n(telescope))))) The tree structures required may of course be much more complex, not only in the sense of having more levels, or more branches at any given level, but also in that the labelling of the nodes (i.e. the ends of the branches) may be more informative. 4.4.4 Structural differences Many relatively trivial syntactic differences between languages are well known, e.g. in Arabic most adjectives follow nouns but in English adjectives normally precede the nouns they qualify. Also, Arabic sentences have more than one structural type. The sentence which contains a verb, will have order of the form verb(V), subject(S) and object(O) or verb(V), object(O) and subject(S). The only combinations that do not occur in Arabic are OSV and SOV (Attia 2004). 4.5 Challenges of Arabic to English MT Arabic words can often be ambiguous due to the three-letter root system. These conso- nant roots interlock with patterns of vowels or consonants to words or word stems. This root system allows the language to evolve to cover a wide range of meanings. In some derivations one or more of the root letters is dropped, resulting in possible ambiguity. Examples of derived words from a three-letter-root are shown in Table 4.2. 60
4.5. CHALLENGES OF ARABIC TO ENGLISH MT Table 4.2: Derived words from a three-letter-root in Arabic Arabic Example POS kataba he wrote verb kātaba he corresponded verb kutiba it was written verb ktiāb book noun kutub books noun kātib writer; (adj) writing noun kutāb writers noun maktab desk; office noun makātib desks; offices noun maktabah library noun A root is defined in (Ryding 2007) as “a relatively invariable discontinuous bound mor- pheme, represented by two to five phonemes, typically three consonants in a certain order, which interlocks with a pattern to form a stem and which has lexical meaning.” There are also two and four letter roots. They are discontinuous because the root letters can be interspersed with other letters in a pattern. However, the order of the root letters must be the same. A pattern is defined in (Ryding 2007) as “a bound and in many cases discontinuous mor- pheme consisting of one or more vowels and slots for root phonemes (radicals), which either alone or in combination with one to three derivational affixes, interlocks with a root to form a stem, and which generally has grammatical meaning.” Patterns signify grammatical or language-internal information, distinguishing word types and classes. These patterns can differentiate between nouns, verbs and adjectives, but also give more detailed information about sublasses of these categories. There are fewer patterns than roots. Arabic has a large set of morphological features (Al-Sughaiyer and Al-Kharashi 2004). 61
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A generic framework for Arabic to E
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sentence and its linking algorithm
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Declaration I herby certify that th
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advices, but also academically and
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CONTENTS 2.3.1.2 Indefinite nouns .
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CONTENTS 4.4.1 Non-Roman alphabet s
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CONTENTS 7.2.8 Limitation of UniAra
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LIST OF FIGURES 4.4 Difference betw
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List of Tables 2.1 Dual: merely add
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LIST OF TABLES 5.9 Test strategy: p
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1 Introduction The following paragr
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high-quality translation technology
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1.3. TECHNOLOGIES ditransitive). Th
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1.4. THESIS ORGANIZATION 2009b). Ch
Page 29 and 30: 2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARABIC
Page 31 and 32: 2.2 Characteristics of Arabic words
Page 33 and 34: 2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ARABIC WORD
Page 35 and 36: 2.3. PART OF SPEECH INVENTORY OF TH
Page 37 and 38: 2.3.4 Verbs 2.3. PART OF SPEECH INV
Page 39 and 40: 2.3.4.2 Aspect 2.3. PART OF SPEECH
Page 41 and 42: 2.3. PART OF SPEECH INVENTORY OF TH
Page 43 and 44: 2.4.1.1 Verb and noun 2.4. SENTENCE
Page 45 and 46: Table 2.27: verb(V), subject(S) and
Page 47 and 48: 3 Role and Reference Grammar (RRG)
Page 49 and 50: 3.1. ROLE AND REFERENCE GRAMMAR LIN
Page 51 and 52: 3.2. FORMAL REPRESENTATION OF LAYER
Page 57 and 58: 3.3. NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE appropri
Page 59 and 60: 3.4. LEXICAL REPRESENTATIONS FOR VE
Page 61 and 62: 3.5. WHY WE USE RRG AS THE LINGUIST
Page 63 and 64: 3.5. WHY WE USE RRG AS THE LINGUIST
Page 65 and 66: 3.6. SUMMARY there will be more com
Page 67 and 68: 4.1. ADVANTAGES OF MACHINE TRANSLAT
Page 69 and 70: 4.2.3 Lexical databases 4.2. COMPUT
Page 71 and 72: 4.3.2 Direct translation 4.3. BASIC
Page 73 and 74: 4.3. BASIC MACHINE TRANSLATION STRA
Page 75 and 76: would also be needed for an interli
Page 77 and 78: 4.4.1 Non-Roman alphabet scripts 4.
Page 79: Figure 4.5: NP rule (NP -> det n pp
Page 83 and 84: Figure 4.7: Direct MT system 4.6.2
Page 85 and 86: 4.7 Summary Figure 4.9: Structure t
Page 87 and 88: 5 Design of Arabic to English machi
Page 89 and 90: 5.2. DESIGNING AN XML LEXICON ARCHI
Page 95 and 96: 5.3. DESIGN OF TEST STRATEGY Table
Page 97 and 98: 5.4. DESIGN OF EVALUATION CRITERIA
Page 99 and 100: 6 UniArab: a proof-of-concept Arabi
Page 101 and 102: 6.1. CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE OF THE UN
Page 107 and 108: 6.2. UNIARAB: LEXICAL REPRESENTATIO
Page 113 and 114: 6.3. UNIARAB: GENERATION which mean
Page 115 and 116: Figure 6.11: UniArab’s GUI 1 6.4.
Page 117 and 118: 6.4.1 Lexicon interface Figure 6.13
Page 119 and 120: 6.6 Summary 6.6. SUMMARY We present
Page 121 and 122: 7.2. SENTENCE TESTS to which standa
Page 123 and 124: Table 7.2: Test : Verb-subject; agr
Page 125 and 126: Figure 7.4: Verb-subject agreement
Page 127 and 128: Table 7.5: Test : gender-ambiguous
Page 129 and 130: Table 7.7: Test : Verb ‘to be’
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Table 7.9: Test : Verb ‘to have
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7.2. SENTENCE TESTS Table 7.11: Tes
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7.2.6 Pro-drop Arabic Table 7.13: T
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Table 7.15: Test : Intransitive 2 A
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7.2.7.3 Ditransitive Table 7.17: Te
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Table 7.19: Test : Ditransitive wit
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7.2. SENTENCE TESTS In a case where
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7.3 System evaluation 7.3. SYSTEM E
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7.3. SYSTEM EVALUATION search engin
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Now is not the end. It is not the b
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8.1. THESIS SUMMARY and so we hope
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and proving the suitability of the
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References Abn-Aqeal, 2007. sharah
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REFERENCES Salem, Y., Hensman, A.,
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Appendix 139
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• Yasser Salem and Brian Nolan. 2
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Arabic Letter and Phonetic Value Le
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C List of translatable sentences I
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she is an engineer. Zaid loves Fati
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Jack is eating with the spoon.
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Ayah tore the page. ֓āyh
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Eman saw Sarah. r֓at ֓iymā
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Carl is brushing his hair. ym
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I want a book. ֓aryd ktāb
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Omar gave the book to Khalid.
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D Verbs in lexicon Verbs in Arabic
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Arabic Example Logical Structure
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Arabic Example Logical Structure
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Arabic ys. rs. r Example the wheel
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Arabic ֓adrs Example I am teach
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Package: Name of Class Class Summar
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