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LSRC reference Section 2 page 10/11 Some of the models we have reviewed, such as the Dunn and Dunn learning styles model, combine qualities which the authors believe to be constitutionally fixed with characteristics that are open to relatively easy environmental modification. Others, such as those by Vermunt (1998) and Entwistle (1998), combine relatively stable cognitive styles with strategies and processes that can be modified by teachers, the design of the curriculum, assessment and the ethos of the course and institution. The reason for choosing to present the models we reviewed in a continuum is because we are not aiming to create a coherent model of learning that sets out to reflect the complexity of the field. Instead, the continuum is a simple way of organising the different models according to some overarching ideas behind them. It therefore aims to capture the extent to which the authors of the model claim that styles are constitutionally based and relatively fixed, or believe that they are more flexible and open to change (see Figure 4). We have assigned particular models of learning styles to what we call ‘families’. This enables us to impose some order on a field of 71 apparently separate approaches. However, like any theoretical framework, it is not perfect and some models are difficult to place because the distinction between constitutionally-based preferences or styles and those that are amenable to change is not always clear-cut. We list all 71 in the database we have created for this review (see Appendix 1). The continuum was constructed by drawing on the classification of learning styles by Curry (1991). We also drew on advice for this project from Entwistle (2002), and analyses and overviews by key figures in the learning styles field (Claxton and Ralston 1978; De Bello 1990; Riding and Cheema 1991; Bokoros, Goldstein and Sweeney 1992; Chevrier et al. 2000; Sternberg and Grigorenko 2001). Although the groupings of the families are necessarily arbitrary, they attempt to reflect the views of the main theorists of learning styles, as well as our own perspective. Our continuum aims to map the learning styles field by using one kind of thematic coherence in a complex, diverse and controversial intellectual territory. Its principal aim is therefore classificatory. We rejected or synthesised existing overviews for three reasons: some were out of date and excluded recent influential models; others were constructed in order to justify the creation of a new model of learning styles and in so doing, strained the categorisations to fit the theory; and the remainder referred to models only in use in certain sectors of education and training or in certain countries. Since the continuum is intended to be reasonably comprehensive, it includes in the various ‘families’ more than 50 of the 71 learning style models we came across during this project. However, the scope of this project did not allow us to examine in depth all of these and there is therefore some risk of miscategorisation. The models that are analysed in depth are represented in Figure 4 in bold type. Our continuum is based on the extent to which the developers of learning styles models and instruments appear to believe that learning styles are fixed. The field as a whole draws on a variety of disciplines, although cognitive psychology is dominant. In addition, influential figures such as Jean Piaget, Carl Jung and John Dewey leave traces in the work of different groups of learning styles theorists who, nevertheless, claim distinctive differences for their theoretical positions. At the left-hand end of the continuum, we have placed those theorists with strong beliefs about the influence of genetics on fixed, inherited traits and about the interaction of personality and cognition. While some models, like Dunn and Dunn’s, do acknowledge external factors, particularly immediate environment, the preferences identified in the model are rooted in ideas that styles should be worked with rather than changed. Moving along the continuum, learning styles models are based on the idea of dynamic interplay between self and experience. At the right-hand end of the continuum, theorists pay greater attention to personal factors such as motivation, and environmental factors like cooperative or individual learning; and also the effects of curriculum design, institutional and course culture and teaching and assessment tasks on how students choose or avoid particular learning strategies. The kinds of instrument developed, the ways in which they are evaluated and the pedagogical implications for students and teachers all flow from these underlying beliefs about traits. Translating specific ideas about learning styles into teaching and learning strategies is critically dependent on the extent to which these learning styles have been reliably and validly measured, rigorously tested in authentic situations, given accurate labels and integrated into everyday practices of information gathering, understanding, and reflective thinking.
We devised this classificatory system to impose some order on a particularly confusing and endlessly expanding field, but as a descriptive device, it has certain limitations. For example, it may overemphasise the differences between the families and cannot reflect the complexity of the influences on all 13 models. Some authors claim to follow certain theoretical traditions and would appear, from their own description, to belong in one family, while the application (or indeed, the marketing) of their learning styles model might locate them elsewhere. For example, Rita Dunn (Dunn and Griggs 1998) believes that style is (in the main) biologically imposed, with the implication that styles are relatively fixed and that teaching methods should be altered to accommodate them. However, in a UK website created by Hankinson (Hankinson 2003), it is claimed that significant gains in student performance can be achieved ‘By just understanding the concept of student learning styles and having a personal learning style profile constructed’. Where such complexity exists, we have taken decisions as a team in order to place theorists along the continuum. Families of learning styles For the purposes of the continuum, we identify five families and these form the basis for our detailed analyses of different models: constitutionally-based learning styles and preferences cognitive structure stable personality type ‘flexibly stable’ learning preferences learning approaches and strategies. Within each family, we review the broad themes and beliefs about learning, and the key concepts and definitions which link the leading influential thinkers in the group. We also evaluate in detail the 13 most influential and potentially influential models, looking both at studies where researchers have evaluated the underlying theory of a model in order to refine it, and at empirical studies of reliability, validity and pedagogical impact. To ensure comparability, each of these analyses, where appropriate, uses the following headings: origins and influence definition, description and scope of the learning style instrument measurement by authors description of instrument reliability and validity external evaluation reliability and validity general implications for pedagogy empirical evidence for pedagogical impact.
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Page 9 and 10: LSRC reference Acknowledgements The
Page 11 and 12: Section 1 A systematic review of le
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Page 25 and 26: Figure 5 Gregorc’s four-channel l
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Page 33 and 34: The measures Over 25 years, Dunn an
Page 35 and 36: Table 4 Percentages of respondents
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Our recommendation in favour of inc
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Learning styles in practice: labell
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Table 44 13 learning-styles models
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It may be argued that it is importa
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Appendix 3 Glossary of terms LSRC r
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