learning-styles

Table 9
Studies of the interaction
of field independence
and attainment with
learners aged 14+ years
Source: Tinajero
and Paramo (1998a)
Achievement in:
Second-language acquisition
Mathematics
Natural sciences
FI subjects perform better
(number of studies)
8
6
11
Non-significant results
(number of studies)
0
1
3
Social sciences
3
0
Implications for pedagogy
There is an underlying assumption from the theorists
in this family that cognitive styles are not particularly
amenable to change, since the idea of cognitive
structure implies deep-seated and relatively
fixed traits. The obvious implications for pedagogy,
therefore, concern issues of diagnosis and ‘matching’,
or compensation for the disadvantages of, typically,
field dependence. However, Saracho (1998b, 288)
warns of the dangers of matching FD students with
‘socially oriented learning tasks’ and FI students
with ‘abstract and less social assignments’. She
argues (1998b, 289) that: ‘students could be denied
the opportunity to learn the broad range of intellectual
skills they need to function in society. Discrepancies
among students would be amplified and students
could be restricted by stereotyped expectations
of what they can achieve.’
In order to give teachers meaningful information about
students, cognitive structure learning styles should
be demonstrably different from measures of ability.
As shown in Table 9, Tinajero and Paramo (1998a)
demonstrate that field independence is a good predictor
of performance.
‘With the exception of Witkin et al. (1977), all
studies of the relationship between FDI and overall
achievement. have indicated that field independent
subjects perform better’ (Tinajero and Paramo
1998a, 237).
Tinajero and Paramo (1997, 1998b) are typical
of later FDI advocates in that they willingly
accept the interaction of field independence and
achievement and focus their attention, in terms
of implications for pedagogy, on ways of exploring
field-dependent students’ strategies in order to
improve their performance.
Gender differences in the relationship between field
independence and self-esteem are reported by Bosacki,
Innerd and Towson (1997). They posit (1997, 692)
that ‘[field independent] Attributes such as autonomy
and analytic thinking may be more valued by society
and, because they are traditionally masculine,
may be more reinforced in males than females’. Thus,
in this study, while there were no overall differences
in self-esteem by gender, FI girls were more likely to
have lower self-esteem, but FI boys more likely to have
higher self-esteem.The authors urge caution in the
use of descriptors or idealised behaviours which are
limiting rather than empowering for pupils.
Field-dependent individuals are described as more
reliant on external referents and, as we have seen,
this is generally interpreted negatively by researchers
investigating achievement and cognitive function.
However, the social abilities of field-dependent
subjects may be advantageous in some aspects
of learning. In a small study, Johnson, Prior and Artuso
(2000) make the link between second-language
acquisition and field dependence, although their
measure of attainment (greater communicative
production) is not the same as that employed in other
studies of attainment in second-language acquisition
(which tend to use test scores).
Glicksohn and Bozna (2000), although studying
an esoteric sample of bomb-disposal experts and
anti-terrorist operatives, make explicit the link
between prosocial FD preferences and autonomous
FI preferences in governing career choice, when other
predisposing factors – in this instance, thrill-seeking
behaviours – are taken into account.
Davies’ (1993) findings that FD subjects are more
vulnerable to ‘hindsight bias’ – that is, the inability
to imagine alternative outcomes once a result
is known – are attributed to a ‘rigidity in information
processing’ which reduces FD subjects’ ability
to ‘engage in cognitive restructuring’ (1993, 233).
This suggests that FD learners might need additional
support in tasks requiring imaginative flexibility.
Empirical evidence of pedagogical impact
There is little strong evidence for improved outcomes
for any of the styles in this family.
Meredith is unable to find links between focus/scan
(Kagan and Krathwohl 1967) and student appraisal
of instructional effectiveness which were strong
enough to support predictions, and concludes
(1981, 620) that: ‘Though research on learning styles
and orientations are [sic] intriguing, there is scant
evidence that these “cognitive styles” are strongly
linked to instructor/course evaluations.’