learning-styles

The theory is an evolving one and Apter (2001, 307)
acknowledges the need for ‘a systematic developmental
underpinning for the theory’ as well as the ‘need to
develop specific techniques that would allow people
to come more in control of their own reversal processes’
(2001, 306). This is a difficult area, since Apter has
posited an unconscious biological basis for reversal
without fully accounting for its adaptive value. There
is, nonetheless, an impressive amount of empirical
evidence which supports reversal theory. Apter and
Heskin (2001) have summarised the research evidence
which supports the basic propositions of the theory,
including some studies in which reversal was monitored
during educationally relevant activities such as studying
statistics and reading.
While Apter does not claim that his four domains are
the only way of conceptualising psychological needs,
he does (2001, 39) claim exhaustiveness in the sense
that for a given pair of motivational states, ‘one or the
other will be active during the whole of waking life’.
He allows that a pair of states may be more or less
central or peripheral in awareness, but not that
both may disappear altogether from consciousness.
However, it is not clear whether this is a logical or
empirical claim, and if the latter, whether it is falsifiable.
Apter does not seem to allow for the simultaneous
activation of pairs of states such as goal-oriented
(telic) and activity-oriented (paratelic). Yet if
simultaneous activation does not occur, it is difficult
to explain behaviour where both are required, such
as the performance of musicians and stand-up comics,
where the experience of flow is at once enjoyment
and achievement.
Apter’s treatment of arousal-avoidance and
arousal-seeking is not fully consistent, since these
are assimilated within the telic-paratelic dimension
in much of his writing, but treated as a separate dimensi
on in the MSP. The MSP approach is more convincing,
since while peace and quiet may generally help people
to focus on goal achievement, this is not always so.
Reversal theory is based on clear definitions and has
a clear structure, despite the use of invented terms
to refer to the poles of two dimensions (‘telic’ and
‘paratelic’ in the case of the means-end dimension
and ‘autic’ and ‘alloic’ as applied to relationships).
While some features of the theory can be questioned,
Apter (2001) has set it out in a highly coherent form,
with four basic assumptions and 10 basic propositions.
Although it is a theory of personality rather than
of learning, reversal theory does provide a conceptual
framework for asking questions in a systematic way
about approaches to learning, especially about
motivation, feelings about learning and personal style.
Its dimensions are not new, but the concept of reversal
is refreshingly novel and provides a real challenge
to theorists who seek to pigeonhole individuals in terms
of fixed characteristics.
It is helpful to consider reversal theory in the context
of other theories and models of thinking, learning
and personal style. Apter’s telic-paratelic dimension
is conceptually linked with extrinsic versus intrinsic
motivation and with convergent versus divergent
thinking. A telic orientation may also be what motivates
some learners to approach study with the aim of gaining
high examination marks, while some students who
do not take their studies seriously may have a paratelic
orientation. Deep absorption in studying a subject
can be an end in itself or be motivated by a serious
academic ambition, while ‘surface’ learners may
become more interested if teachers find ways of making
learning more enjoyable. There is a family resemblance
between Apter’s conformist-negativistic dimension,
Sternberg’s (1998) hierarchic and anarchic thinking
styles and Kirton’s distinction (1989) between adaptors
and innovators. Apter’s concept of autic mastery
reflects values of individualism and competitiveness,
while alloic sympathy reflects values of social belonging
and cooperation.
Most importantly, the key concept of reversal has major
implications for how we think about learning styles.
It leads us to expect reversals between learning styles
as well as some degree of individual consistency
over time, and it strongly suggests that productive
learning styles can be fostered by creating learning
environments though which important values are
conveyed and in which reversals through boredom
and satiation are less likely to occur.
Evaluation of the MSP and of related instruments
The MSP items are written in simple language, with
a readability level of about 9 years. Most are clearly
expressed, but some (especially those beginning
with ‘I like…’) can be read in more than one way.
For example, I may respond that I always ‘like to be
liked’, meaning that being liked is a common experience
for me; or I may, by the same response, mean that
I always like the experience of being liked, even though
I do not have it very often.
The MSP is fairly robust in psychometric terms,
with internal consistency of the 14 sub-scales in the
range 0.64 to 0.89 for the UK version and test–retest
correlations in the range 0.73 to 0.92 over a 12-week
period (Apter, Mallows and Williams 1998). The
most stable sub-scales were those for other-oriented
affection, optimism, excitement and fun.