learning-styles

LSRC reference Section 6
page 66/67
More recently, Wierstra and de Jong (2002) have
again empirically analysed the two-dimensional model
behind the 1985 version of the LSI and have suggested
yet another configuration. They argue that there has
been no conclusive evidence for the existence of Kolb’s
two dimensions – AC-CE and RO-AE – and indeed,
other researchers have found different two-dimensional
structures or no two-dimensional structure at all
(eg Cornwell, Manfredo and Dunlap 1991; Geiger
and Pinto 1992). Their own research found two
configurations of the relations between the four
constructs, both of them different from the structure
proposed by Kolb. Their preferred solution, which
is suggested by all the types of analysis they carried
out and which is not influenced by the problem of the
‘ipsative’ scoring system (see below for explanation)
is ‘a one-dimensional bipolar representation: (AC+RO)
versus (AE+CE) or “reflective learning versus learning
by doing”’ (Wierstra and de Jong 2002, 439). This
finding now needs to be replicated with other samples,
but there is no doubt that, for the present, their
research and that of De Ciantis and Kirton constitute
a serious challenge to the construct validity of the LSI.
General issues
Another recurrent criticism of the LSI has concerned
the scoring method. There are, in effect, two separate
issues which are sometimes combined by some
commentators. First, all three versions of the LSI
employ the forced-choice method which Kolb chose
deliberately, partly to increase the ecological validity
of the instrument (ie the learner is forced to make a
choice between different ways of learning in accordance
with Kolb’s theory), and partly to avoid the ‘social
desirability response’ set. To control for this response,
Kolb chose four words ‘of equally positive social
desirability’ (1981, 293), although it is questionable
whether this objective has been achieved.
Second, the LSI is what is technically described
as ‘ipsative’: that is, the interdependence of the four
learning modes is built into the test. To explain in
more detail, a learner is forced to assign one of the
four scores (1, 2, 3 or 4) to one of four endings to
a sentence so that the total score for each learner
for each sentence is always 10 (ie 1+2+3+4). For
example, ‘When I learn: I am happy (1). I am fast (3).
I am logical (2). I am careful (4)’. For Wierstra and
de Jong (2002, 432), ‘ipsativity obscures the real
relation between the four learning modes and it
hampers research into the dimensionality of the test’.
Mainemelis, Boyatzis and Kolb (2002, 10) responded
to these problems by arguing as follows: ‘In the LSI, the
four scale scores (AC, CE, AE, RO) are clearly ipsative,
but the two dimensional scores (AC-CE and AE-RO)
are not … learning styles in the LSI are determined
on the basis of the two non-ipsative dimensional scores
and not the four ipsative scale scores’.
Implications for pedagogy
Kolb argues that his theory of experiential learning
provides a useful framework for the design and
management of all learning experiences and, moreover,
he makes three practical suggestions. Both types
of contribution are briefly explored here.
According to Kolb (1984, 196), the main weakness
of current pedagogy is ‘the failure to recognise and
explicitly provide for the differences in learning styles
that are characteristic of both individuals and subject
matters’. As a result of studying the instructional
preferences of students of business and architecture,
Kolb produced a table which lists in great detail the
characteristics of learning environments that help
or hinder learners with four different learning styles.
For example, the students scoring highest in active
experimentation were, it is claimed, helped in their
learning by small-group discussions, projects,
peer feedback and homework, but not by lectures.
Kolb’s first practical suggestion is that teachers and
learners should explicitly share their respective theories
of learning, a process which would create four benefits.
Students would understand why the subject matter
is taught as it is and what changes they would need
to make to their learning styles to study this subject.
Teachers would identify the range of learning styles
among the student body and would modify their
teaching accordingly.
Both teachers and students would be ‘stimulated
to examine and refine their learning theories’
(Kolb 1984, 202).
Through dialogue, teachers would become more
empathetic with their students and so more able to
help them improve their knowledge and skills. Freedman
and Stumpf (1978) make, however, the reasonable
point that such dialogues will not always take place in
ideal conditions – that is, in small classes which provide
individual attention from a tutor who is trained in the
theory and practice of learning styles.
The need to individualise instruction is the second
practical conclusion that Kolb draws from his research
into learning environments. This is, of course, easier
said than done, particularly in further education with
large group sizes and a modular curriculum, but Kolb
believes that information technology (IT) will provide the
breakthrough, together with a shift in the teacher’s role
from ‘dispenser of information to coach or manager
of the learning process’ (1984, 202). Kolb’s Facilitator’s
guide to learning presents a table which ‘summarizes
learning strengths and preferred learning situations
that have been discussed in learning style research’
(Kolb 2000, 17). No further details about the research
are given. The table claims, for example, that those
whose strength lies in learning by experiencing prefer
games and role plays, whereas those whose strength
lies in learning by reflecting prefer lectures.