Botkin Environmental Science Earth as Living Planet 8th txtbk

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202 CHAPTER 10 Environmental Health, Pollution, and Toxicology Sulfur oxides Ammonia Cadmium Ozone Nitrogen oxides Hydrogen sulfide Asbestos Radon Mercury Arsenic Chromium Cadmium Nickel Dental Fluoride Respiratory system Selenium Hepatic Chlorinated system hydrocarbons Lead Arsenic Fluoride Vanadium Chlorinated hydrocarbons Olfactory/Sinus Intestinal system Fat Central nervous system Thyroid gland Pulmonary system Renal system Skeletal system Cobalt Iodine 131 Carbon monoxide Cadmium Lead Mercury Cadmium Lead Fluoride Lead Strontium 90 Zinc Carbon monoxide Manganese Lead Mercury Fluoride Cadmium Circulatory system Skin Arsenic Beryllium Nickel Chromium Mercury (a) Asbestos Benzene Nitrogen oxides Arsenic Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen sulfide Mercury Particulates Sulfur oxides Ozone Sulfur dioxide Hydrocarbons Hydrochloric acid Ozone Beryllium Fluoride Pulmonary system Cadmium Vanadium Eyes Skeletal and dental system Respiratory Circulatory system Central nervous system Barium Boron Carbon monoxide Hydrogen sulfide Lead Manganese Nitrogen oxides Selenium Intestinal system Renal system Cadmium Fluoride Mercury Phosphorus Vanadium Arsenic Carbon monoxide Hydrogen sulfide Lead Mercury Molybdenum Selenium FIGURE 10.11 (a) Effects of some major pollutants in human beings. (b) Known sites of effects of some major pollutants in wildlife. (b) small amount can be relatively harmless. Every chemical element has a spectrum of possible effects on a particular organism. For example, selenium is required in small amounts by living things but may be toxic or increase the probability of cancer in cattle and wildlife when it is present in high concentrations in the soil. Copper, chromium, and manganese are other chemical elements required in small amounts by animals but toxic in higher amounts. It was recognized many years ago that the effect of a certain chemical on an individual depends on the dose. This concept, termed dose response, can be represented by a generalized dose-response curve, such as that shown in Figure 10.12. When various concentrations of a chemical present in a biological system are plotted against the effects on the organism, two things are apparent: Relatively large concentrations are toxic and even lethal (points D, E, and F in Figure 10.12), but trace concentrations may actually be beneficial for life (between points A and D). The doseresponse curve forms a plateau of optimal concentration and maximum benefit between two points (B and C). Points A, B, C, D, E, and F in Figure 10.12 are important thresholds in the dose-response curve. Unfortunately, the amounts at which points E and F occur are known only for a few substances for a few organisms, including people, and the very important point D is all but unknown. Doses that are beneficial, harmful, or lethal may differ widely for different organisms and are difficult to characterize. Fluorine provides a good example of the general doseresponse concept. Fluorine forms fluoride compounds that prevent tooth decay and promote development of a healthy bone structure. Relationships between the concentration of fluoride (in a compound of fluorine, such
10.3 General Effects of Pollutants 203 Beneficial to life Harmful to life ? A Increasing benefit B ? Maximum benefit (plateau) C Increasing concentration Decreasing benefit Noticeable harm E Death FIGURE 10.12 Generalized dose-response curve. Low concentrations of a chemical may be harmful to life (below point A). As the concentration of the chemical increases from A to B, the benefit to life increases. The maximum concentration that is beneficial to life lies within the benefit plateau (B–C). Concentrations greater than this plateau provide less and less benefit (C–D) and will harm life (D–F) as toxic concentrations are reached. Increased concentrations above the toxic level may result. as sodium fluoride, NaF) and health show a specific doseresponse curve (Figure 10.13). The plateau for an optimal concentration of fluoride (point B to point C) to reduce dental caries (cavities) is from about 1 ppm to just less than 5 ppm. Levels greater than 1.5 ppm do not significantly decrease tooth decay but do increase the occurrence of tooth discoloration. Concentrations of 4–6 ppm reduce the prevalence of osteoporosis, a disease characterized by loss of bone mass; and toxic effects are noticed between 6 and 7 ppm (point D in Figure 10.13). D Toxic F Beneficial to life Harmful to life B A Maximum benefits for tooth and bone development C ? 1 2 3 4 6? Fluoride concentration (ppm) Excessive bone formation FIGURE 10.13 General dose-response curve for fluoride, showing the relationship between fluoride concentration and physiological benefit. D 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 E Toxic Dose-Response Curve (LD-50, ED-50, and TD-50) Individuals differ in their response to chemicals, so it is difficult to predict the dose that will cause a response in a particular individual. It is more practical to predict instead what percentage of a population will respond to a specific dose of a chemical. For example, the dose at which 50% of the population dies is called the lethal dose 50, or LD-50. The LD-50 is a crude approximation of a chemical’s toxicity. It is a gruesome index that does not adequately convey the sophistication of modern toxicology and is of little use in setting a standard for toxicity. However, the LD-50 determination is required for new synthetic chemicals as a way of estimating their toxic potential. Table 10.4 lists, as examples, LD-50 values in rodents for selected chemicals. ? F Table 10.4 AGENT APPROXIMATE LD–50 VALUES (FOR RODENTS) FOR SELECTED AGENTS LD-50(mg/kg) a Sodium chloride (table salt) 4,000 Ferrous sulfate (to treat anemia) 1,520 2,4-D (a weed killer) 368 DDT (an insecticide) 135 Caffeine (in coffee) 127 Nicotine (in tobacco) 24 Strychnine sulfate (used to kill certain pests) 3 Botulinum toxin (in spoiled food) 0.00001 a Milligrams per kilogram of body mass (termed mass weight, although it really isn’t a weight) administered by mouth to rodents. Rodents are commonly used in such evaluations, in part because they are mammals (as we are), are small, have a short life expectancy, and their biology is well known. Source: H.B. Schiefer, D.C. Irvine, and S.C. Buzik, Understanding Toxicology (New York: CRC Press, 1997).
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Earth as a Li
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VICE PRESIDENT AND EXECUTIVE PUBLIS
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About the Authors Daniel B. Botkin
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Preface vii Themes Our book is base
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Preface ix Updated Critical Thinkin
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Acknowledgments Reviewers of This E
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Acknowledgments xiii Karen Swanson,
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Contents Chapter 1 Key Themes in En
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xviii Contents Summary 125 Reexamin
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xx Contents Chapter 13 Wildlife, Fi
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xxii Contents CRITICAL THINKING ISS
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xxiv Contents Availability and Use
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2 CHAPTER 1 Key Themes in Environme
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10 CHAPTER 1 Key Themes in Environm
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over 4 million in 1950. In 1999 Tok
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CHAPTER 2 Science as a Way of Knowi
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24 CHAPTER 2 Science as a Way of Kn
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42 CHAPTER 3 The Big Picture: Syste
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60 CHAPTER 4 The Human Population a
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CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts and
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82 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts a
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100 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts
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102 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts
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CHAPTER 6 The Biogeochemical Cycles
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106 CHAPTER 6 The Biogeochemical Cy
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128 CHAPTER 7 Dollars and Environme
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144 CHAPTER 8 Biological Diversity
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252 CHAPTER 12 Landscapes: Forests,
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258 CHAPTER 13 Wildlife, Fisheries,
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CHAPTER 14 Energy: Some Basics LEAR
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288 CHAPTER 14 Energy: Some Basics
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304 CHAPTER 15 Fossil Fuels and the
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CHAPTER 16 Alternative Energy and t
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328 CHAPTER 16 Alternative Energy a
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346 CHAPTER 17 Nuclear Energy and t
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CHAPTER 18 Water Supply, Use, and M
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370 CHAPTER 18 Water Supply, Use, a
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CHAPTER 19 Water Pollution and Trea
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400 CHAPTER 19 Water Pollution and
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CHAPTER 20 The Atmosphere, Climate,
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430 CHAPTER 20 The Atmosphere, Clim
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462 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution CASE S
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464 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution
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466 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Table
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470 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Air po
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472 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Mercur
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474 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution (a) FI
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478 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution The ga
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490 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution chimn
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494 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution SUMMAR
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496 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution STUDY
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498 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments C
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500 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments I
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502 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments o
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504 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments K
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506 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments 2
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508 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments A
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510 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments F
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512 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments F
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518 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments S
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520 CHAPTER 23 Materials Management
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552 CHAPTER 24 Our Environmental Fu
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Appendix A Special Feature: Electro
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Appendix A-3 VOLUME in 3 ft 3 yd 3
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Appendix A-5 Basic Chemistry
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Photo Credits CHAPTER 1 Ch Op 1: Im
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Glossary Abortion rate The estimate
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Glossary G-3 deposition of crustal
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Glossary G-5 high and the growth ra
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Glossary G-7 environmental impacts
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Glossary G-9 per unit time and some
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Glossary G-11 cooler than it is tod
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Glossary G-13 Nonpoint sources Poll
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Glossary G-15 Positive feedback A t
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Glossary G-17 Shelterwood cutting A
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Glossary G-19 Time series The set o
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Index Entries followed by an f may
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INDEX I-3 Sweetwater Marsh National
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INDEX I-5 dune succession, 96, 96f
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INDEX I-7 Colorado River, 114, 115f
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INDEX I-9 Lovelock, James, 10, 108
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INDEX I-11 Pelagic ecosystem, 85, 8
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INDEX I-13 Static systems, 44, 44f
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INDEX I-15 Watts, 291, 292t Weather
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N-2 NOTES 7. Schmidt, W.E. 1991 (Se
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N-4 NOTES 4. Christian, D. 2004. Ma
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N-6 NOTES 9. Collins, S.L., A.K. Kn
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N-8 NOTES 8. U.S. Department of Agr
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N-10 NOTES 19. O’Donnell, James J
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N-12 NOTES 19. Piore, 2002 (April 1
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N-14 NOTES application of secondary
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N-16 NOTES 22. Foukal, P., C. Frohl
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N-18 NOTES 54. Zummo, S.M., and M.H
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N-20 NOTES 38. Bullard, R.D. 1990.
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