Botkin Environmental Science Earth as Living Planet 8th txtbk

216 CHAPTER 11 Agriculture, Aquaculture, and the Environment
The world’s food supply is also greatly influenced by
social disruptions and social attitudes, which affect the environment
and in turn affect agriculture. In Africa, social
disruptions since 1960 have included more than 20 major
wars and more than 100 coups. 10 Such social instability
makes sustained agricultural yields difficult—indeed, it
makes any agriculture difficult if not impossible. 11 So does
variation in weather, the traditional bane of farmers. 12
How We Starve
People “starve” in two ways: undernourishment and malnourishment.
World food production must provide adequate nutritional
quality, not just total quantity. Undernourishment
results from insufficient calories in available food, so that one
has little or no ability to work or even move and eventually
dies from the lack of energy. Malnourishment results from
a lack of specific chemical components of food, such as proteins,
vitamins, or other essential chemical elements. Widespread
undernourishment manifests itself as famines that are
obvious, dramatic, and fast-acting. Malnourishment is long
term and insidious. Although people may not die outright,
they are less productive than normal and can suffer permanent
impairment and even brain damage.
Among the major problems of undernourishment are
marasmus, which is progressive emaciation caused by a
lack of protein and calories; kwashiorkor, which results
from a lack of sufficient protein in the diet and in infants
leads to a failure of neural development and thus to learning
disabilities (Figure 11.6); and chronic hunger, when
people have enough food to stay alive but not enough to
lead satisfactory and productive lives (see Figure 11.7).
The supply of protein has been the major nutritionalquality
problem. Animals are the easiest protein food source
for people, but depending on animals for protein raises several
questions of values. These include ecological ones (Is it
better to eat lower on the food chain?), environmental ones
(Do domestic animals erode soil faster than crops do?), and
ethical ones (Is it morally right to eat animals?). How people
answer these questions affects approaches to agriculture
and thereby influences the environmental effects of agriculture.
Once again, the theme of science and values arises.
Since the end of World War II, rarely has a year passed
without a famine somewhere in the world. 11 Food emergencies
affected 34 countries worldwide at the end of the 20th
century. Varying weather patterns in Africa, Latin America,
and Asia, as well as an inadequate international trade in
food, contributed to these emergencies. Examples include
famines in Ethiopia (1984–1985), Somalia (1991–1993),
and the 1998 crisis in Sudan. As we noted earlier, Africa
remains the continent with the most acute food shortages,
due to adverse weather and civil strife. 11
A common remedy is food aid among nations, where
one nation provides food to another or gives or lends
FIGURE 11.6 Photograph of a child suffering from kwashiorkor.
money to purchase food. In the 1950s and 1960s, only
a few industrialized countries provided food aid, using
stocks of surplus food. A peak in international food aid
occurred in the 1960s, when a total of 13.2 million tons
per year of food were given. A world food crisis in the early
1970s raised awareness of the need for greater attention
to food supply and stability. But during the 1980s, donor
commitments totaled only 7.5 million tons. A record level
of 15 million tons of food aid in 1992–1993 met less than
50% of the minimum caloric needs of the people fed. If
food aid alone is to bring the world’s malnourished people
to a desired nutritional status, an estimated 55 million
tons will be required by the year 2010—more than six
times the amount available in 1995. 13
Availability of food grown locally avoids disruptions
in distribution and the need to transport food over long
distances. But ironically, food aid can work against increased
availability of locally grown food in regions receiving
aid. Free food undercuts local farmers—they cannot
compete with it. The only complete solution to famine is
to develop long-term, sustainable, local agriculture. The
old saying “Give a man a fish and feed him for a day; teach
him to fish and feed him for life” is true.