Botkin Environmental Science Earth as Living Planet 8th txtbk

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268 CHAPTER 13 Wildlife, Fisheries, and Endangered Species Landings, millions of pounds 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1880 90 1901 20 a. Oyster b. Blue Crab c. Striped Bass d. American Shad ND reporting system change ND landings WA landings WA moratorium ND moratorium ND moratorium 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 Patuxent Estuary Solomons Island Susquehanna Estuary Havre de Grace Baltimore Washington, D.C. Potomac Estuary Rappahannock Estuary (a) Year (b) FIGURE 13.8 (a) Fish catch in the Chesapeake Bay. Oysters have declined dramatically. (Source: The Chesapeake Bay Foundation.) (b) Map of the Chesapeake Bay Estuary. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey, “The Chesapeake Bay: Geological Product of Rising Sea Level,” 1998.) York Estuary Delmarva Peninsula James Cape Charles Estuary Chesapeake Hampton Roads Bay Norfolk Cape Henry Pamlico Sound Delaware Bay Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge Hoopers Island Smith Island Tangier Island Virginia Beach Atlantic Ocean Humans Other non-reefassociated fish Bluefish Atlantic croaker adult Bluefish juvenile Menhaden juvenile Spot adult Atlantic croaker juvenile Spot juvenile Littoral foragefish (a) Atlantic silverside Bay anchovy (b) FIGURE 13.9 (a) Bluefish; (b) food chain of the bluefish in Chesapeake Bay (Source: Chesapeake Bay Foundation.)
13.3 Fisheries 269 “tragedy of the commons,” discussed in Chapter 7. In an open resource, often in international waters, the numbers of fish that may be harvested can be limited only by international treaties, which are not tightly binding. Open resources offer ample opportunity for unregulated or illegal harvest, or harvest contrary to agreements. Exploitation of a new fishery usually occurs before scientific assessment, so the fish are depleted by the time any reliable information about them is available. Furthermore, some fishing gear is destructive to the habitat. Ground-trawling equipment destroys the ocean floor, ruining habitat for both the target fish and its food. Longline fishing kills sea turtles and other nontarget surface animals. Large tuna nets have killed many dolphins that were hunting the tuna. In addition to highlighting the need for better management methods, the harvest of large predators raises questions about ocean ecological communities, especially whether these large predators play an important role in controlling the abundance of other species. Human beings began as hunter-gatherers, and some hunter-gatherer cultures still exist. Wildlife on the land used to be a major source of food for hunter-gatherers. It is now a minor source of food for people of developed nations, although still a major food source for some indigenous peoples, such as the Eskimo. In contrast, even developed nations are still primarily hunter-gatherers in the harvesting of fish (see the discussion of aquaculture in Chapter 11). Can Fishing Ever Be Sustainable? Suppose you went into fishing as a business and expected reasonable growth in that business in the first 20 years. The world’s ocean fish catch rose from 39 million MT in 1964 to 68 million MT in 2003, an average of 3.8% per year for a total increase of 77%. 15 From a business point of view, even assuming all fish caught are sold, that is not considered rapid sales growth. But it is a heavy burden on a living resource. There is a general lesson to be learned here: Few wild biological resources can sustain a harvest large enough to meet the requirements of a growing business. Although when the overall economy is poor, such as during the economic downturn of 2008–2009, these growth rates begin to look pretty good, most wild biological resources really aren’t a good business over the long run. We learned this lesson also from the demise of the bison, discussed earlier, and it is true for whales as well (see A Closer Look 13.3). There have been a few exceptions, such as the several hundred years of fur trading by the Hudson’s Bay Company in northern Canada. However, past experience suggests that economically beneficial sustainability is unlikely for most wild populations. With that in mind, we note that farming fish— aquaculture, discussed in Chapter 11—has been an important source of food in China for centuries and is an increasingly important food source worldwide. But aquaculture can create its own environmental problems (see A Closer Look 13.1). A CLOSER LOOK 13.1 King Salmon Fishing Season Canceled: Can We Save Them from Extinction? On May 1, 2008, Secretary of Commerce Carlos M. Gutierrez declared “a commercial fishery failure for the West Coast salmon fishery due to historically low salmon returns,” and ordered that salmon fishing be closed. It was an unprecedented decision, the first time since California and Oregon became states, because experts decided that numbers of salmon on the Sacramento River had dropped drastically. The decision was repeated in April 2009, halting all king salmon catch off of California but allowing a small catch off of Oregon, and also allowing a small salmon season on the Sacramento River from mid-November to December 31. 12 Figure 13.10 shows an example of the counts that influenced the decision. These counts were done at the Red Bluff Dam, an irrigation dam for part of the flow of the Sacramento River, completed in 1966. There the fish could be observed as they traversed a fish ladder. Between 1967 and 1969, an average of more than 85,000 adult king salmon crossed the dam. In 2007, there were fewer than 7,000. 13 While the evidence from Red Bluff Dam seems persuasive, there are several problems. First, the number of salmon varies greatly from year to year, as you can see from the graph. Second, there is no single, consistent way that all the salmon on the Sacramento River system are counted, and in some places the counts are much more ambiguous, suggesting that the numbers may not have dropped severely, as shown in Figure 13.11. Lacking the best long-term observations, those in charge of managing the salmon decided to err on the side of caution:
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Earth as a Li
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VICE PRESIDENT AND EXECUTIVE PUBLIS
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About the Authors Daniel B. Botkin
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Preface vii Themes Our book is base
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Preface ix Updated Critical Thinkin
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Acknowledgments Reviewers of This E
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Acknowledgments xiii Karen Swanson,
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Contents Chapter 1 Key Themes in En
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xviii Contents Summary 125 Reexamin
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xx Contents Chapter 13 Wildlife, Fi
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xxii Contents CRITICAL THINKING ISS
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xxiv Contents Availability and Use
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2 CHAPTER 1 Key Themes in Environme
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10 CHAPTER 1 Key Themes in Environm
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over 4 million in 1950. In 1999 Tok
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CHAPTER 2 Science as a Way of Knowi
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24 CHAPTER 2 Science as a Way of Kn
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42 CHAPTER 3 The Big Picture: Syste
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60 CHAPTER 4 The Human Population a
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CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts and
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82 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts a
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100 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts
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102 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts
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CHAPTER 6 The Biogeochemical Cycles
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106 CHAPTER 6 The Biogeochemical Cy
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128 CHAPTER 7 Dollars and Environme
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144 CHAPTER 8 Biological Diversity
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170 CHAPTER 9 Ecological Restoratio
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186 CHAPTER 10 Environmental Health
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212 CHAPTER 11 Agriculture, Aquacul
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318 CHAPTER 15 Fossil Fuels and the
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CHAPTER 16 Alternative Energy and t
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328 CHAPTER 16 Alternative Energy a
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346 CHAPTER 17 Nuclear Energy and t
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CHAPTER 18 Water Supply, Use, and M
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370 CHAPTER 18 Water Supply, Use, a
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CHAPTER 19 Water Pollution and Trea
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400 CHAPTER 19 Water Pollution and
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CHAPTER 20 The Atmosphere, Climate,
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430 CHAPTER 20 The Atmosphere, Clim
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462 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution CASE S
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464 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution
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466 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Table
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470 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Air po
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472 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Mercur
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474 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution (a) FI
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478 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution The ga
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490 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution chimn
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494 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution SUMMAR
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496 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution STUDY
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498 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments C
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500 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments I
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502 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments o
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504 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments K
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506 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments 2
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508 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments A
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510 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments F
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512 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments F
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518 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments S
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520 CHAPTER 23 Materials Management
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552 CHAPTER 24 Our Environmental Fu
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Appendix A Special Feature: Electro
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Appendix A-3 VOLUME in 3 ft 3 yd 3
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Appendix A-5 Basic Chemistry
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Photo Credits CHAPTER 1 Ch Op 1: Im
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Glossary Abortion rate The estimate
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Glossary G-3 deposition of crustal
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Glossary G-5 high and the growth ra
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Glossary G-7 environmental impacts
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Glossary G-9 per unit time and some
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Glossary G-11 cooler than it is tod
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Glossary G-13 Nonpoint sources Poll
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Glossary G-15 Positive feedback A t
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Glossary G-17 Shelterwood cutting A
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Glossary G-19 Time series The set o
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Index Entries followed by an f may
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INDEX I-3 Sweetwater Marsh National
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INDEX I-5 dune succession, 96, 96f
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INDEX I-7 Colorado River, 114, 115f
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INDEX I-9 Lovelock, James, 10, 108
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INDEX I-11 Pelagic ecosystem, 85, 8
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INDEX I-13 Static systems, 44, 44f
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INDEX I-15 Watts, 291, 292t Weather
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N-2 NOTES 7. Schmidt, W.E. 1991 (Se
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N-4 NOTES 4. Christian, D. 2004. Ma
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N-6 NOTES 9. Collins, S.L., A.K. Kn
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N-8 NOTES 8. U.S. Department of Agr
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N-10 NOTES 19. O’Donnell, James J
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N-12 NOTES 19. Piore, 2002 (April 1
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N-14 NOTES application of secondary
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N-16 NOTES 22. Foukal, P., C. Frohl
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N-18 NOTES 54. Zummo, S.M., and M.H
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N-20 NOTES 38. Bullard, R.D. 1990.
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