The universal geography : earth and its inhabitants

More documents

Recommendations

Info

90 SCANDINAVIA.between "Wenersborg and Jonkiiping. Their levelled summits present tolerablyuniform surfaces, strewn witb boulders, with intervening swamps and lakelets.Still the aspect of the land is occasionally deceptive, and to glacial action bavebeen wrongly attributed certain parallel dispositions of rocks that bave been thusaffected by side pressure. The group of islands, for instance, immediately to thewest of Cbristiania, are all turned north-east and south-west, and are furrowed withcreeks and separated by channels all running in the same direction. But the striaoscored by the old glaciers are all at right angles to these parallel lines.Of more difficult explanation than the strice are the so-called a&ar, or lowridges of various heights, from 20 to 200 feet, stretching almost without interruptionsometimes for over 70 miles across the country, generally from northto south, or south-east, and winding like rivers to the right and left. Thereare some lateral &sar of less length ramifying in various directions, whereas thelarger ones run mainly in parallel lines. They were at first supposed to be vastmoraines, until Berzelius showed that there was no direct relation of cause andeffect between the asar and the glaciers.The ftsar, however, are composed of materials transported for a first stage bythe ice, and then borne farther by other geological agencies. After vast depressionshad been filled in with detritus by the frozen streams, the waters begantheir work, hollowing out enormous furrows in these masses, in which the boulderscontinually gravitated downwards, becoming rounded off by friction, or ground tosand and gravel. Such are the materials of which the Asar are composed. Erdmannsupposed that the larger ones were due to the action of the sea-waters, which withthe changes of level took up the stones of the moraines that had so far drifted withthe streams. Many of the stsar, notably that which runs immediately north ofStockholm, are doubtless covered with marine shells of the same species as those ofthe present Baltic Sea. But such deposits are quite superficial, and have beenformed during a temporary subsidence of the land after the glacial epoch.According to the materials of which they are mainly composed, the Asar arecalled either sandasar or rulktemsar (sand or shingle &sar) ; but all alike showevident traces of more or less rough stratification, such as is still constantly goingon in running water. There seem to be others, again, which rest on moraines—fresh formation superadded to the first. In some there occur certain funnel-likeformations (asgropar), cylindrical or elliptical, with a circumference of 300 yardsand upwards, and a mean depth of 10 to 68 feet, the bottom of which is filled withclays formerly deposited by eddying waters. In the Sttomsholm .is there arethirty-nine such funnels in a distance of about 84 miles, all apparently due to theaction of running waters, whose force was spent by the obstacles lying in theirway, and by the constant shifting of their beds. In Norway, where the slopes aremuch more abrupt, and where the water-courses are consequently less developedbetween the mountain cirques and the sea, the asar, here known as raer, are farless numerous than in Sweden, and seem to have been mostly confounded with themoraines. The Norwegian word aas is applied to all eminences, even to rockysummits.
GLACIAL ACTION—THE ASAR. 01The best-known Scandinavian as is the long chain which, under divers namesBrunkebergs &s, Mngasen, and so on—extends for a distance of 60 miles, from theBaltic coast south of Stockholm to the neighbourhood of TJpsala. Between thesea-coast and Lake Wetter, near Askersund, there are no less than eight mainFig. 46. Asar ix the Dal River Basin.Scale 1 : 170,000.Forests strewn with erratic blocks.^^^-^^^^^^— 2 Allies.&sar, besides their various secondary ramifications, and amongst them are someconsiderably longer than that of Brunkeberg. The traces of another may befollowed for 180 or 200 miles northwards, from the shores of Lake Malar,near Enkoping, while others form natural embankments across the lakes,
Page 1 and 2:
pp-i'"**•••%.
Page 7:
LIBRARYOF THEr ry of Illinois.
Page 10 and 11:
CITYUOAD.
Page 12:
ivCONTEXTS.PAOBChap. II. Finland 20
Page 18 and 19:
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.ILLUSTRATIONS
Page 20 and 21:
MonasteryLIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S.PAG
Page 22 and 23:
2 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.islands,
Page 24 and 25:
4 TIIE NOKTH-EAST ATLANTIC.The velo
Page 26 and 27:
6THE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.boat manne
Page 28 and 29:
8 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.the norma
Page 30 and 31:
110 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.pole to
Page 32 and 33:
12 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.Mohn has
Page 34 and 35:
14 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.opposing
Page 36 and 37:
1GTHE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.constant
Page 38 and 39:
18 THE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.THE BALT
Page 40 and 41:
•.'It1,10,I•aTHE NOBTH-EAST ATL
Page 42 and 43:
22 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.water-li
Page 44 and 45:
ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.I.—
Page 46 and 47:
2GISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.The
Page 48 and 49:
28 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.pe
Page 50 and 51:
80 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.re
Page 52 and 53:
32 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.ov
Page 54 and 55:
34 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.no
Page 56 and 57:
36 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.ar
Page 58 and 59:
33 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.Th
Page 60 and 61:
10 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.en
Page 62 and 63:
42 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.fo
Page 64 and 65:
44 ISLANDS OF THE XOETH ATLANTIC.Mi
Page 66:
Sudur-Umdaemid46 ISLANDS OF THE NOR
Page 69 and 70:
SCANDINAVIA.CHAPTER I.jEEPER though
Page 71 and 72:
THE TIiNINSULA OP JYLLAND. 49Katteg
Page 73 and 74:
THE PENINSULA OF JYLLAND. 51the mud
Page 75 and 76: THE DANISH ISLANDS. 53a number of l
Page 77 and 78: THE DANISH ISLANDS. 55— consist o
Page 79 and 80: INHABITANTS—PREHISTORIC REMAINS.
Page 81 and 82: INHABITANTS—PREHISTORIC REMAINS.
Page 83 and 84: TOPOGRAPHY. 61Topography.All the im
Page 86 and 87: •COPENHAGEN .THESOUfS t- i i- 6 B
Page 89 and 90: COPENHAGEN.G3sea, and the land rout
Page 95 and 96: COPENHAGEN. 65and a model of its ki
Page 97 and 98: SOCIAL CONDITIONS—OCCUPATIONS. 67
Page 99 and 100: SOCIAL CONDITIONS—OCCUPATIONS.G9e
Page 101 and 102: ADMINISTRATION—COLONIES. 71Assemb
Page 103 and 104: CHAPTER II.THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSU
Page 105 and 106: nrsiCAL features of noeytay. 75with
Page 107: ,RARY
Page 110 and 111: 78 SCANDIXAYTA.o-laciers -were cons
Page 112 and 113: 80 M'AXDINAVIA.opening like crevice
Page 114 and 115: B2SCANDINAVIA.other equally dangero
Page 116 and 117: JJ50GEDALSF0SSEN, IN THE DISTRICT O
Page 118 and 119: M SI AXDIXAYIA.insular masses. The
Page 121 and 122: THE SCANDINAVIAN FIOEDS. £5tills s
Page 123 and 124: GLACIAL ACTION"—THE ASAR. 87Glaci
Page 125: GLACIAL ACTION—THE ASAE, 89in 184
Page 129 and 130: UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND. 93rather than
Page 131 and 132: LAKES. 96tops and headlands are now
Page 133 and 134: LAKES. 97to the Baltic, and no more
Page 135 and 136: EIYEKS. 99streams as the llhone or
Page 137 and 138: EIVEKS. 101amount of their rainfall
Page 141 and 142: CLIMATE. 103by engineers at 225,000
Page 143 and 144: CLIMATE. 105Cape ; in summer and wi
Page 145 and 146: CLIMATE. 107Even in the coldest win
Page 147 and 148: FLORA. 109of new species. The perfu
Page 149 and 150: FAUNA.Illwant of cheap fuel. In the
Page 151 and 152: EARLIEST INHABITANTS. 113later or p
Page 155 and 156: THE SWEDES AND NORWEGIANS. 115the p
Page 157 and 158: THE SWEDES AND NORWEGIANS. 117were
Page 160 and 161: TYPES AXD COSTUMES IN LAPLAND.
Page 162 and 163: 120 SCANDINAVIA.dependent for his s
Page 164 and 165: 122 SCANDINAVIA.churches, all with
Page 166 and 167: 121 SCAHDINAYIA.the houses are main
Page 168 and 169: 126 SCANDINAVIA.the point where the
Page 170 and 171: 128 SCANDINAVIA.Saugesund guards th
Page 172 and 173: 130 SCANDINAVIA.Spitzbergen and the
Page 174 and 175: 132 SCANDINAVIA.Canal, whose sluice
Page 176 and 177:
13-1 SCANDINAVIA.between the three
Page 178:
13sSCANDINAVIA.Stockholm, capital o
Page 181:
-ID>J)AV.ENVIRONS.*"-,;"3j~Zi^^n^"^
Page 184:
138 SCANDINAVIA.and shipping are al
Page 188 and 189:
140 SCANDINAVIA.temple where human
Page 190 and 191:
112 SCANDINAVIA.mining district. Bu
Page 192 and 193:
114 SCANDINAVIA.eruigratiori, which
Page 194 and 195:
146 SCANDINAVIA.also yearly adds ma
Page 196 and 197:
1-18 SCANDINAVIA.by regular parcell
Page 198 and 199:
150 SCANDINAVIA.rodskjaer, each of
Page 200 and 201:
152 SCANDINAVIA.which that of Ammeb
Page 202 and 203:
15JSCANDINAVIA.between Christiania
Page 204 and 205:
156 SCANDINAVIA.The Swedish system,
Page 206 and 207:
View158 SCANDINAVIA.the exact relat
Page 208 and 209:
1G0SCANDINAVIA.to pass a part of th
Page 210 and 211:
162 SCANDINAVIA.and bailiffs {foged
Page 212 and 213:
164 SCANDINAVIA.The Swedish Church
Page 214 and 215:
106 SCANDINAVIA.The militia of the
Page 216 and 217:
THE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE ARCTIC
Page 218 and 219:
170 THE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE AEC
Page 221 and 222:
SPITZBEEGEN. 171Jurassic, and even
Page 223 and 224:
SPITZBERGEN. 173vicissitudes in the
Page 225 and 226:
SPITZBERGEN. 175changes of temperat
Page 227 and 228:
SPITZBEKOEN. 177captured ; but Nord
Page 229 and 230:
WICHE'S LAND. 179to certain unauthe
Page 231 and 232:
the expedition.But from this point
Page 237 and 238:
RUSSIA IN EUROPE.CHAPTER I.GENERAL
Page 239 and 240:
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 185that have b
Page 241 and 242:
LAKES AND RIVERS. 187St. Petersburg
Page 243 and 244:
CLIMATE. 189Climate.— Vegetation.
Page 245 and 246:
* Mean temperature in degrees Fahre
Page 247 and 248:
INHABITANTS. 193groups, Uralo-Fiuni
Page 249 and 250:
OEIGIXES OF RUSSIA. 195fifths of th
Page 251 and 252:
THE VARANGIANS. 197the Novgorod Sla
Page 253 and 254:
NOVGOROD IN HEB GLORY. 199the north
Page 255 and 256:
POLISH ASCENDANCY.2C1historic highw
Page 257 and 258:
GROWTH OF RUSSIA. 203herself be one
Page 259 and 260:
SEABOARD AND BOUNDARIES.where could
Page 261 and 262:
CHAPTER II.ALTHOUGH forming part of
Page 263 and 264:
GLACIALFINLAND :ACTION. 209elevatio
Page 265 and 266:
FINLAND: LAKES. 211It looks as if a
Page 267 and 268:
FINLAND: LAKES. 213it has retained
Page 269 and 270:
FINLAND: CLIMATE. 215Climate.— Ve
Page 273 and 274:
FINLAND: INHABITANTS. 217with the R
Page 275 and 276:
FINLAND: TOrOGEAPHY. 219Forsby, on
Page 277 and 278:
FINLAND : NATURALRESOURCES. 221of S
Page 279 and 280:
FINLAND: POTOLATION. 223Industry is
Page 281 and 282:
FINLAND : GOVERNMENT.225one iu twen
Page 283 and 284:
CHAPTER III.THE BALTIC PROVINCES.(E
Page 285 and 286:
TEE BALTIC PROVINCE*. 229drainage i
Page 287 and 288:
TIIE BALTIC PROVINCES. 231and geolo
Page 289 and 290:
THE BALTIC PROVINCES. 233composed t
Page 291 and 292:
THE BALTIC PK0YENCE8. 235vessels, a
Page 295 and 296:
THE BALTIC ITiOVlXCES. 237capital o
Page 299 and 300:
THE LALTIC rKOVIXCE*. 239approaches
Page 301 and 302:
CHAPTER IV.poland (polska).Historic
Page 303 and 304:
POLAND. 243successors soon lost mos
Page 305 and 306:
POLAND. 245in appearance. It was ev
Page 308 and 309:
'•',|',.jl"n -''
Page 310 and 311:
248 RUSSIA JN EEBOrE.Like all civil
Page 312:
230 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.some of the la
Page 316 and 317:
25 2 KtTSSIA IN EUEOPE.In the "Wart
Page 318:
254 RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.Few cities of
Page 322 and 323:
CHAPTER V.UPPER DVINA AND NIEMEN BA
Page 324 and 325:
258 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.The Niemen, wh
Page 326 and 327:
260 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.and representi
Page 328 and 329:
262 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.breathing a de
Page 330 and 331:
2G4 RUSSIA IX BUEOPE.labourers rece
Page 332 and 333:
266 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.Jesuits was on
Page 334 and 335:
CHAPTER VI.DNIEPER AND DNIESTER BAS
Page 336 and 337:
'.;.270 RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.on the sur
Page 338 and 339:
272I1; -ssl A IN EUROPE.Water Syste
Page 340 and 341:
271 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Nearly all its
Page 342:
27GRUSSIA IN EUEOPE.nowhere an abso
Page 346 and 347:
27KPITSSIA IN EUROPE.side of the li
Page 348 and 349:
280 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Iii the coast
Page 350 and 351:
2S2RUSSIA IN EUROPE.and beyond it t
Page 352 and 353:
284 . RUSSIAIX EUROPE.Russians may
Page 354 and 355:
28GRUSSIA IN EUKOPE.Topography.The
Page 356 and 357:
288 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Lug, a tributa
Page 358 and 359:
,;290 RUSSIA IX ETTBOEE.names corre
Page 360:
292 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.In the ninth c
Page 364:
201 KUSSIA IN EUEOPE.whence thev so
Page 368 and 369:
29 C RUSSIA IX EUROrE.thousands of
Page 370 and 371:
298 RUSSIA IN ETJEOrE.and in the st
Page 372 and 373:
800 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.provinces, and
Page 374 and 375:
:v.".-'.•302 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.and
Page 376:
304 EUSSIA IX EUROl'E.enemies from
Page 380 and 381:
306 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.Fanatics are e
Page 382 and 383:
308 RUSSIA IN EUROrE.was one of the
Page 384 and 385:
310 RUSSIA IX ETJEOPE.rate the over
Page 386 and 387:
812 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.opposite bank
Page 388:
8URUSSIA IN EUEOrE.Ilaji-Bey liman,
Page 392:
316 RUSSIA TX EUBOPEThe quality of
Page 396 and 397:
318 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.the Moldavian
Page 398 and 399:
:;-nEUSSIA IN EUEOPE.oi' (lie river
Page 400 and 401:
322 EUSSIA IN EUROPE.fallin g from
Page 402 and 403:
324 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.jslaiddown at
Page 404 and 405:
826 i;l SSIA IX EUROPE.of the same
Page 406 and 407:
328 BUSSIA IN EUROPE.history is pre
Page 408 and 409:
330 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.woven stuffs,
Page 410 and 411:
B32RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.Byzantine coins
Page 412:
334 Bl SSIA IN EUEOPE.Nevertheless
Page 417 and 418:
ST. PETEESBTJEG. 335On the shores o
Page 419:
.;& 'i;J illVinlSii
Page 423 and 424:
ST. PETERSBURG. 337including the hu
Page 425 and 426:
ST. PETERSBURG. 339Palace, contains
Page 427 and 428:
CHAPTER VIII.LANDS DRAINING TO THE
Page 429 and 430:
ARCTIC RUSSIA. 843stretching southw
Page 431 and 432:
ARCTIC RUSSIA.3Urunning north-west
Page 435 and 436:
ARCTIC RUSSIA. 347from 40 to TO fee
Page 437 and 438:
TIIK WHITE SEA. 349which it is dist
Page 439 and 440:
THE SAMOYEDS. 851Russian plains sou
Page 441 and 442:
ZIRYANIANS. 853or Ch tides, as the
Page 443 and 444:
ONEGA. 155in the first half of the
Page 445 and 446:
AKCHANGEL. :;:,7chief centre of tra
Page 447 and 448:
NOVAYA ZEMLYA. 359frequented by the
Page 449 and 450:
NOVAYA ZEMLYA. 363Government survey
Page 451 and 452:
theCHAPTER IX.VOLGA AND URAL BASINS
Page 455 and 456:
THE VOLGA. 365and rafts are then ab
Page 457 and 458:
THE VOLGA DELTA.3G7narrow peninsula
Page 459 and 460:
Tin: VOLGA DELTA. 369thirds of that
Page 461 and 462:
TUE CASriAX SEA. 371light navigatio
Page 463 and 464:
LACUSTRINE AND SALT STEPPES OF THE
Page 465 and 466:
THE SOUTHERN URALS. 375their operat
Page 467 and 468:
THE SOUTHERN HEALS. 877other plains
Page 469 and 470:
THE GEEAT RUSSIANS. 879the spring f
Page 471 and 472:
THE GREAT RUSSIANS. 881the subject.
Page 473 and 474:
THE GREAT RUSSIANS. 883the mingled
Page 475 and 476:
RELIGIOUS SECTS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 38
Page 477 and 478:
RELIGIOUS SECTS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 38
Page 479 and 480:
RfBINSK. 389industrial centres in X
Page 481:
TYTES AM) COSTUMES IN THE GOVEKNMEK
Page 485 and 486:
OROL— TULA. 391the artisan classe
Page 487 and 488:
MOSCOW. 393Vitebsk and Smolensk, th
Page 491 and 492:
MOSCOW. 395that " Moscow is celebra
Page 493 and 494:
RIAZAN-KASIMOV. 397monastery. It is
Page 497 and 498:
NIJNI-NOVGOROD. 399paint as many as
Page 501 and 502:
NIJNI-NOVGOBOD. 401The district whe
Page 503 and 504:
THE MORDYINIANS. 403down the Volga
Page 505 and 506:
CHEREMISSIANS—CHUVASHES. 405conne
Page 507 and 508:
KAZAN TATARS. 407Bulgarliks. Differ
Page 509 and 510:
PENZA. 4091875. The kindred Voguls
Page 511 and 512:
BOLOAE. 411history of the Russian s
Page 513 and 514:
SLA.TOUST—VIATKA. 4131721. Thanks
Page 517 and 518:
THE KAIMUK8. 415some Turki tribes,
Page 519 and 520:
SIMBIRSK—SAMAEA. 417enthusiasm in
Page 521 and 522:
DUBOVEA—SAREPTA—-TZAROV. 419the
Page 523 and 524:
THE URAL COSSACKS. 421place having
Page 525 and 526:
THE DON. 423been levelled by the ac
Page 527 and 528:
THE SEA OF AZOV. 425basin.Since 186
Page 529 and 530:
iTHE SEA OF AZOV. 427especially is
Page 531 and 532:
THE SEA OF AZOV. 429the salt consum
Page 533 and 534:
'THE DON COSSACKS. 431Inhabitants.
Page 535 and 536:
THE DOX COSSACKS. 433families, Saxo
Page 537 and 538:
VOEONEJ—KHARKOV. 435as Kozlor and
Page 539 and 540:
GKUGUYEV—SLA.VANSK—SLAYANOSEBBS
Page 541 and 542:
EOSTOV—AZOV-TAGANROG. 439head of
Page 544 and 545:
;«,
Page 547 and 548:
CHAPTER XLTHE CRIMEA.HE Crimean pen
Page 549 and 550:
THE CRIMEA. 443times facilitated co
Page 551 and 552:
TIIE CRIMEA. 445and according to th
Page 555 and 556:
THE CRIMEA. 447a reaction which lus
Page 559 and 560:
SEBASTOPOL. 449The famous siege of
Page 565 and 566:
KAFFA—KERTCH. 451often commanding
Page 567 and 568:
POPULATION. 453surprisingly from pr
Page 569 and 570:
POPULATION. 455far inferior to that
Page 571 and 572:
POPULATION. 457The Russians, as is
Page 573 and 574:
AGRICULTURE. 459who are obliged to
Page 575 and 576:
TEE MIE, OR COMMUNE. 461taiuly rece
Page 577 and 578:
THE MIE, OE COMMUNE. 463both " vill
Page 579 and 580:
MINING AND MANUFACTURES.4G5a more f
Page 581 and 582:
COMMEKCE. 46775,680,000 gallons of
Page 583 and 584:
RAILWAYS.4G9long. Yet, nofcwithstan
Page 585 and 586:
EDUCATION. 471Education.In educatio
Page 587 and 588:
GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 473s
Page 589 and 590:
GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 475m
Page 591 and 592:
-•>THE CHURCH—THE ARMY. 477"whi
Page 593 and 594:
THE AKMY AND NAVY. 479Some of the R
Page 595 and 596:
Hibrring,Aalborg,j(suburbYiborg,APP
Page 597 and 598:
AITENDIX. 483EL—COMMERCE.Shipping
Page 599 and 600:
APPENDIX. 485Area axd Population -o
Page 601 and 602:
APPENDIX. 487VI.—MANUFACTORIES NO
Page 603 and 604:
INDEX.Aa River. Kurlfmd, 229Livonia
Page 605 and 606:
INDEX.1U1Frithiof Glacier, 173Frost
Page 607 and 608:
INDEX. 493Mezen, 358Gulf, 343River,
Page 609 and 610:
INDEX. 495Skj&lfjanaifli6t, 34SkjSr
Page 614 and 615:
,'.J'4T"^L._,.'•;--£'in **£%^SS
Page 616:
"VUNIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS-URBA3 0112
show all

The universal geography : earth and its inhabitants

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?