The universal geography : earth and its inhabitants

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94 H'AXDINAVIA.day at thirteen different points on the coast, and on the shores of Lakes Malar,Iljelmar, "Wetter, and Wener.As to the cause of these upheavals, some ha\e regarded them as localphenomena, others associating them with various disturbances of the surface inEurope, or with the vital forces of the whole planetary system.Many causes mayeven be at work, at times neutralising each other, at times co-operating, thoughthe period for deciding these points with certainty has not yet arrived.The Scandinavian Lakes.The irregularity of these oscillations is perhaps mainly due to the unfinishedstate of the peninsula on both maritime slopes. The chief geological function ofthe running waters is to regulate the slopes by giving them a parabolical curvefrom the source to the mouth of the streams. The differences of level, theperturbations of the coast, the thousand phenomena associated with the planetaryeconomy, have everywhere prevented the rivers from completing this work ; butnowhere is the irregularity of the river beds greater than in Scandinavia.Theygenerally form a series of terraces rather than a uniform curve, and to the unequalupheaval of the land must, at least in part, be attributed the formation of so manylacustrine basins.The numerous pools and lakes on the Norwegian plateaux and upper valleyshave already been referred to.Towards the Arctic Ocean the escarpments are toolittle developed to retain many lakes in their granite basins, while those occurringat their base are merely detached remnants of fiords. But on the Swedish side,and the Norwegian slopes facing the Kattegat and Skager Rak, the surface iseverywhere dotted over with bodies of still water.Here they are relatively morenumerous than in any other European region except- South Finland, occupyingabout one-thirteenth of the whole area of the peninsula. In certain Swedishdistricts, especially Sodermannland, between Stockholm and Norrkoping, the lakesare so common that they are hold in no more account than trees of the forest." When God severed land and water," says a local proverb, " He forgot Sodermannland."Nearly the whole of South Sweden has remained in a similar chaotic state,the water surface occupying over one-eighth of the entire area. Most of the lakeshores are houseless, silent pine, birch, and oak forests, rarely relieved by thesongster's note, reflecting their foliage in the greenish waters, or dyed a reddishhue by the tannin of the heather. Sedgy or reedy tracts encircle their borders,while elsewhere huge blocks detached from the neighbouring cliffs raise theircrests above the surface. No sail enlivens the dreary waste of waters ; nothingrecalls the presence of man except a solitary bark moored to the shore, or the bluesmoke of an isolated cottage in some neighbouring glade.The extent of the stagnant waters is known to have been considerably reducedduring the historic period, a result due partly to river action levelling rocky ledgesand sweeping away moraines and ;isar, partly to the hand of man here and thereconstructing drainage works. The numerous fortified enclosures met on the hill-
LAKES. 96tops and headlands are now surrounded by peat beds, swamps, and marshy pasturelands.A careful study of these low-lying tracts shows that they were formerlylakes or navigable gulfs, and here are sometimes still found the remains of boats.Fig. 47. Lakes Wexer and Wettbb.Scale 1 : 1,600,000.Lake bottom sulitLelow the level ofthe Baltic.The fastnesses were accordingly defended, partly at least, by water, and nearlyall the Swedish towns had their origin in such insular strongholds.The larger Swedish lakes are themselves an index of the gradual drying up ofthe land. Formerly continuously united, they formed a strait connecting the
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LIBRARYOF THEr ry of Illinois.
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CITYUOAD.
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ivCONTEXTS.PAOBChap. II. Finland 20
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.ILLUSTRATIONS
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MonasteryLIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S.PAG
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2 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.islands,
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4 TIIE NOKTH-EAST ATLANTIC.The velo
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6THE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.boat manne
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8 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.the norma
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110 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.pole to
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12 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.Mohn has
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14 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.opposing
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1GTHE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.constant
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18 THE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.THE BALT
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•.'It1,10,I•aTHE NOBTH-EAST ATL
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22 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.water-li
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ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.I.—
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2GISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.The
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28 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.pe
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80 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.re
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32 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.ov
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34 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.no
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36 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.ar
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33 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.Th
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10 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.en
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42 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.fo
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44 ISLANDS OF THE XOETH ATLANTIC.Mi
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Sudur-Umdaemid46 ISLANDS OF THE NOR
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SCANDINAVIA.CHAPTER I.jEEPER though
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THE TIiNINSULA OP JYLLAND. 49Katteg
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THE PENINSULA OF JYLLAND. 51the mud
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THE DANISH ISLANDS. 53a number of l
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THE DANISH ISLANDS. 55— consist o
Page 79 and 80: INHABITANTS—PREHISTORIC REMAINS.
Page 81 and 82: INHABITANTS—PREHISTORIC REMAINS.
Page 83 and 84: TOPOGRAPHY. 61Topography.All the im
Page 86 and 87: •COPENHAGEN .THESOUfS t- i i- 6 B
Page 89 and 90: COPENHAGEN.G3sea, and the land rout
Page 95 and 96: COPENHAGEN. 65and a model of its ki
Page 97 and 98: SOCIAL CONDITIONS—OCCUPATIONS. 67
Page 99 and 100: SOCIAL CONDITIONS—OCCUPATIONS.G9e
Page 101 and 102: ADMINISTRATION—COLONIES. 71Assemb
Page 103 and 104: CHAPTER II.THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSU
Page 105 and 106: nrsiCAL features of noeytay. 75with
Page 107: ,RARY
Page 110 and 111: 78 SCANDIXAYTA.o-laciers -were cons
Page 112 and 113: 80 M'AXDINAVIA.opening like crevice
Page 114 and 115: B2SCANDINAVIA.other equally dangero
Page 116 and 117: JJ50GEDALSF0SSEN, IN THE DISTRICT O
Page 118 and 119: M SI AXDIXAYIA.insular masses. The
Page 121 and 122: THE SCANDINAVIAN FIOEDS. £5tills s
Page 123 and 124: GLACIAL ACTION"—THE ASAR. 87Glaci
Page 125 and 126: GLACIAL ACTION—THE ASAE, 89in 184
Page 127 and 128: GLACIAL ACTION—THE ASAR. 01The be
Page 129: UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND. 93rather than
Page 133 and 134: LAKES. 97to the Baltic, and no more
Page 135 and 136: EIYEKS. 99streams as the llhone or
Page 137 and 138: EIVEKS. 101amount of their rainfall
Page 141 and 142: CLIMATE. 103by engineers at 225,000
Page 143 and 144: CLIMATE. 105Cape ; in summer and wi
Page 145 and 146: CLIMATE. 107Even in the coldest win
Page 147 and 148: FLORA. 109of new species. The perfu
Page 149 and 150: FAUNA.Illwant of cheap fuel. In the
Page 151 and 152: EARLIEST INHABITANTS. 113later or p
Page 155 and 156: THE SWEDES AND NORWEGIANS. 115the p
Page 157 and 158: THE SWEDES AND NORWEGIANS. 117were
Page 160 and 161: TYPES AXD COSTUMES IN LAPLAND.
Page 162 and 163: 120 SCANDINAVIA.dependent for his s
Page 164 and 165: 122 SCANDINAVIA.churches, all with
Page 166 and 167: 121 SCAHDINAYIA.the houses are main
Page 168 and 169: 126 SCANDINAVIA.the point where the
Page 170 and 171: 128 SCANDINAVIA.Saugesund guards th
Page 172 and 173: 130 SCANDINAVIA.Spitzbergen and the
Page 174 and 175: 132 SCANDINAVIA.Canal, whose sluice
Page 176 and 177: 13-1 SCANDINAVIA.between the three
Page 178: 13sSCANDINAVIA.Stockholm, capital o
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-ID>J)AV.ENVIRONS.*"-,;"3j~Zi^^n^"^
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138 SCANDINAVIA.and shipping are al
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140 SCANDINAVIA.temple where human
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112 SCANDINAVIA.mining district. Bu
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114 SCANDINAVIA.eruigratiori, which
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146 SCANDINAVIA.also yearly adds ma
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1-18 SCANDINAVIA.by regular parcell
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150 SCANDINAVIA.rodskjaer, each of
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152 SCANDINAVIA.which that of Ammeb
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15JSCANDINAVIA.between Christiania
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156 SCANDINAVIA.The Swedish system,
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View158 SCANDINAVIA.the exact relat
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1G0SCANDINAVIA.to pass a part of th
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162 SCANDINAVIA.and bailiffs {foged
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164 SCANDINAVIA.The Swedish Church
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106 SCANDINAVIA.The militia of the
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THE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE ARCTIC
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170 THE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE AEC
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SPITZBEEGEN. 171Jurassic, and even
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SPITZBERGEN. 173vicissitudes in the
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SPITZBERGEN. 175changes of temperat
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SPITZBEKOEN. 177captured ; but Nord
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WICHE'S LAND. 179to certain unauthe
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the expedition.But from this point
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RUSSIA IN EUROPE.CHAPTER I.GENERAL
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GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 185that have b
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LAKES AND RIVERS. 187St. Petersburg
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CLIMATE. 189Climate.— Vegetation.
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* Mean temperature in degrees Fahre
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INHABITANTS. 193groups, Uralo-Fiuni
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OEIGIXES OF RUSSIA. 195fifths of th
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THE VARANGIANS. 197the Novgorod Sla
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NOVGOROD IN HEB GLORY. 199the north
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POLISH ASCENDANCY.2C1historic highw
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GROWTH OF RUSSIA. 203herself be one
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SEABOARD AND BOUNDARIES.where could
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CHAPTER II.ALTHOUGH forming part of
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GLACIALFINLAND :ACTION. 209elevatio
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FINLAND: LAKES. 211It looks as if a
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FINLAND: LAKES. 213it has retained
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FINLAND: CLIMATE. 215Climate.— Ve
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FINLAND: INHABITANTS. 217with the R
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FINLAND: TOrOGEAPHY. 219Forsby, on
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FINLAND : NATURALRESOURCES. 221of S
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FINLAND: POTOLATION. 223Industry is
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FINLAND : GOVERNMENT.225one iu twen
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CHAPTER III.THE BALTIC PROVINCES.(E
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TEE BALTIC PROVINCE*. 229drainage i
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TIIE BALTIC PROVINCES. 231and geolo
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THE BALTIC PROVINCES. 233composed t
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THE BALTIC PK0YENCE8. 235vessels, a
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THE BALTIC ITiOVlXCES. 237capital o
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THE LALTIC rKOVIXCE*. 239approaches
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CHAPTER IV.poland (polska).Historic
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POLAND. 243successors soon lost mos
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POLAND. 245in appearance. It was ev
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'•',|',.jl"n -''
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248 RUSSIA JN EEBOrE.Like all civil
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230 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.some of the la
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25 2 KtTSSIA IN EUEOPE.In the "Wart
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254 RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.Few cities of
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CHAPTER V.UPPER DVINA AND NIEMEN BA
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258 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.The Niemen, wh
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260 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.and representi
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262 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.breathing a de
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2G4 RUSSIA IX BUEOPE.labourers rece
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266 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.Jesuits was on
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CHAPTER VI.DNIEPER AND DNIESTER BAS
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'.;.270 RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.on the sur
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272I1; -ssl A IN EUROPE.Water Syste
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271 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Nearly all its
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27GRUSSIA IN EUEOPE.nowhere an abso
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27KPITSSIA IN EUROPE.side of the li
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280 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Iii the coast
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2S2RUSSIA IN EUROPE.and beyond it t
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284 . RUSSIAIX EUROPE.Russians may
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28GRUSSIA IN EUKOPE.Topography.The
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288 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Lug, a tributa
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,;290 RUSSIA IX ETTBOEE.names corre
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292 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.In the ninth c
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201 KUSSIA IN EUEOPE.whence thev so
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29 C RUSSIA IX EUROrE.thousands of
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298 RUSSIA IN ETJEOrE.and in the st
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800 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.provinces, and
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:v.".-'.•302 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.and
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304 EUSSIA IX EUROl'E.enemies from
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306 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.Fanatics are e
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308 RUSSIA IN EUROrE.was one of the
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310 RUSSIA IX ETJEOPE.rate the over
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812 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.opposite bank
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8URUSSIA IN EUEOrE.Ilaji-Bey liman,
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316 RUSSIA TX EUBOPEThe quality of
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318 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.the Moldavian
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:;-nEUSSIA IN EUEOPE.oi' (lie river
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322 EUSSIA IN EUROPE.fallin g from
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324 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.jslaiddown at
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826 i;l SSIA IX EUROPE.of the same
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328 BUSSIA IN EUROPE.history is pre
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330 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.woven stuffs,
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B32RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.Byzantine coins
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334 Bl SSIA IN EUEOPE.Nevertheless
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ST. PETEESBTJEG. 335On the shores o
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.;& 'i;J illVinlSii
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ST. PETERSBURG. 337including the hu
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ST. PETERSBURG. 339Palace, contains
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CHAPTER VIII.LANDS DRAINING TO THE
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ARCTIC RUSSIA. 843stretching southw
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ARCTIC RUSSIA.3Urunning north-west
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ARCTIC RUSSIA. 347from 40 to TO fee
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TIIK WHITE SEA. 349which it is dist
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THE SAMOYEDS. 851Russian plains sou
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ZIRYANIANS. 853or Ch tides, as the
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ONEGA. 155in the first half of the
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AKCHANGEL. :;:,7chief centre of tra
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NOVAYA ZEMLYA. 359frequented by the
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NOVAYA ZEMLYA. 363Government survey
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theCHAPTER IX.VOLGA AND URAL BASINS
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THE VOLGA. 365and rafts are then ab
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THE VOLGA DELTA.3G7narrow peninsula
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Tin: VOLGA DELTA. 369thirds of that
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TUE CASriAX SEA. 371light navigatio
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LACUSTRINE AND SALT STEPPES OF THE
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THE SOUTHERN URALS. 375their operat
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THE SOUTHERN HEALS. 877other plains
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THE GEEAT RUSSIANS. 879the spring f
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THE GREAT RUSSIANS. 881the subject.
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THE GREAT RUSSIANS. 883the mingled
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RELIGIOUS SECTS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 38
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RELIGIOUS SECTS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 38
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RfBINSK. 389industrial centres in X
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TYTES AM) COSTUMES IN THE GOVEKNMEK
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OROL— TULA. 391the artisan classe
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MOSCOW. 393Vitebsk and Smolensk, th
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MOSCOW. 395that " Moscow is celebra
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RIAZAN-KASIMOV. 397monastery. It is
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NIJNI-NOVGOROD. 399paint as many as
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NIJNI-NOVGOBOD. 401The district whe
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THE MORDYINIANS. 403down the Volga
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CHEREMISSIANS—CHUVASHES. 405conne
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KAZAN TATARS. 407Bulgarliks. Differ
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PENZA. 4091875. The kindred Voguls
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BOLOAE. 411history of the Russian s
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SLA.TOUST—VIATKA. 4131721. Thanks
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THE KAIMUK8. 415some Turki tribes,
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SIMBIRSK—SAMAEA. 417enthusiasm in
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DUBOVEA—SAREPTA—-TZAROV. 419the
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THE URAL COSSACKS. 421place having
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THE DON. 423been levelled by the ac
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THE SEA OF AZOV. 425basin.Since 186
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iTHE SEA OF AZOV. 427especially is
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THE SEA OF AZOV. 429the salt consum
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'THE DON COSSACKS. 431Inhabitants.
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THE DOX COSSACKS. 433families, Saxo
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VOEONEJ—KHARKOV. 435as Kozlor and
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GKUGUYEV—SLA.VANSK—SLAYANOSEBBS
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EOSTOV—AZOV-TAGANROG. 439head of
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;«,
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CHAPTER XLTHE CRIMEA.HE Crimean pen
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THE CRIMEA. 443times facilitated co
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TIIE CRIMEA. 445and according to th
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THE CRIMEA. 447a reaction which lus
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SEBASTOPOL. 449The famous siege of
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KAFFA—KERTCH. 451often commanding
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POPULATION. 453surprisingly from pr
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POPULATION. 455far inferior to that
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POPULATION. 457The Russians, as is
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AGRICULTURE. 459who are obliged to
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TEE MIE, OR COMMUNE. 461taiuly rece
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THE MIE, OE COMMUNE. 463both " vill
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MINING AND MANUFACTURES.4G5a more f
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COMMEKCE. 46775,680,000 gallons of
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RAILWAYS.4G9long. Yet, nofcwithstan
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EDUCATION. 471Education.In educatio
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GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 473s
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GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 475m
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-•>THE CHURCH—THE ARMY. 477"whi
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THE AKMY AND NAVY. 479Some of the R
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Hibrring,Aalborg,j(suburbYiborg,APP
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AITENDIX. 483EL—COMMERCE.Shipping
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APPENDIX. 485Area axd Population -o
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APPENDIX. 487VI.—MANUFACTORIES NO
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INDEX.Aa River. Kurlfmd, 229Livonia
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INDEX.1U1Frithiof Glacier, 173Frost
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INDEX. 493Mezen, 358Gulf, 343River,
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INDEX. 495Skj&lfjanaifli6t, 34SkjSr
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,'.J'4T"^L._,.'•;--£'in **£%^SS
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"VUNIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS-URBA3 0112
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