The universal geography : earth and its inhabitants

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4C1RUSSIA IX EUROPE.becomes a village, with exclusive communal right to the surrounding district.Tho mir, or commune, thus consists of all the village peasantry, and while freelyadministered, it is still responsible for the well-being of each of its members. Allcapable of work receive a share of the land, though the forests often, and thepastures nearly always, remain unallotted. The house, the ground on which itKg. 240. Progress op the Okie? Russian Industries, exclusive of Poland, from 18S5 to 1874.
MINING AND MANUFACTURES.4G5a more frequent survey, besides which each village has its own customs andspecial development. Even in the same district some communes will redistributethe land yearly, while in others the term varies from two years to a wholegeneration.* As a rule, the richer and more prosperous the commune, the lessfrequent are the redistributions.In order to insure equality there is usually a threefold classification of theland according to the quality of its soil, its aspect, inclination, proximity todwellings, roads, or streams,and even then the parcels are awarded by lot.Mining and Manufactures.Mining operations, formerly so important, and at no epoch completely abandoned,have acquired great development in the present century. A gildedpyramid at the St. Petersburg Exhibition of 1870, representing the quantity ofgold extracted from the Urals, mainly since 1816, weighed 1,610,000 lbs., and wasvalued at £102,000,000. The minerals, including, besides gold and platinum, iron,malachite, and precious stones, are confined chiefly to both slopes of the Urals,while the most copious naphtha springs occur at the two extremities of the Caucasus,and argentiferous lead ores and coal in the Altai and Transbaikal regions ofCentral Asia. Of all these treasures the most important are iron, coal, and salt,which exist in almost inexhaustible quantities, though still comparatively littleutilised. Russia still imports most of her coal from England, and much of hersalt from Galicia.The chief manufactures do not employ raw materials of home production, andare still unable to compete with those of the West in quantity or quality. Cottonspinning and weaving, although representing one-third of all manufactured goods,occupy the fifth place only after Great Britain, the United States, France, andGermany, and are centred chiefly in the Moscow, Vladimir, Kostroma, andSt. Petersburg districts. Wool, the next in importance, has its chief centre alsoin the Upper Volga and Oka basins, though Poland, Livonia, Grodno, Chernigov,Little Russia, the Don and Middle Volga basins, are also engaged in this industry,which employs over 100,000 hands altogether. Cotton and wool have thusreplaced the old national linen industry, which stood first till 1830, and formerlyexported largely to the West, and even to America. The raw material (flax andhemp) is now mostly exported, although the local demand for linens is still largelysupplied from the looms of the Upper Volga, Kostroma, Yaroslav, and Vladimir.Leather has always been one of the chief Russian industries, and the birchbark employed by the Russian tanners has the advantage of imparting to theirwares a much-prized odour. Yet, although the local supply of hides and skinsexceeds that of other European countries, the quantity of the manufactured articleis less. Most of the tanneries are small, numbering in 1872 nearly 13,000, andproducing over 10,000,000 dressed skins. A greater impulse has been given to* In the government of Saratov 128 villages redistribute annually, 22 every 2, 13 every 3, 21 every5, 20 every 6, 2 every 8, 32 every 10 years ; in 32 there has been no division since 1858 ;in 23 none since1862 ; and in one division has been theoretically abolished.
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LIBRARYOF THEr ry of Illinois.
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CITYUOAD.
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ivCONTEXTS.PAOBChap. II. Finland 20
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.ILLUSTRATIONS
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MonasteryLIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S.PAG
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2 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.islands,
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4 TIIE NOKTH-EAST ATLANTIC.The velo
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6THE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.boat manne
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8 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.the norma
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110 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.pole to
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12 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.Mohn has
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14 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.opposing
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1GTHE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.constant
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18 THE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.THE BALT
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•.'It1,10,I•aTHE NOBTH-EAST ATL
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22 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.water-li
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ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.I.—
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2GISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.The
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28 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.pe
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80 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.re
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32 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.ov
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34 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.no
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36 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.ar
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33 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.Th
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10 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.en
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42 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.fo
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44 ISLANDS OF THE XOETH ATLANTIC.Mi
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Sudur-Umdaemid46 ISLANDS OF THE NOR
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SCANDINAVIA.CHAPTER I.jEEPER though
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THE TIiNINSULA OP JYLLAND. 49Katteg
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THE PENINSULA OF JYLLAND. 51the mud
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THE DANISH ISLANDS. 53a number of l
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THE DANISH ISLANDS. 55— consist o
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INHABITANTS—PREHISTORIC REMAINS.
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INHABITANTS—PREHISTORIC REMAINS.
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TOPOGRAPHY. 61Topography.All the im
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•COPENHAGEN .THESOUfS t- i i- 6 B
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COPENHAGEN.G3sea, and the land rout
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COPENHAGEN. 65and a model of its ki
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SOCIAL CONDITIONS—OCCUPATIONS. 67
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SOCIAL CONDITIONS—OCCUPATIONS.G9e
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ADMINISTRATION—COLONIES. 71Assemb
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CHAPTER II.THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSU
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nrsiCAL features of noeytay. 75with
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,RARY
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78 SCANDIXAYTA.o-laciers -were cons
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80 M'AXDINAVIA.opening like crevice
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B2SCANDINAVIA.other equally dangero
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JJ50GEDALSF0SSEN, IN THE DISTRICT O
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M SI AXDIXAYIA.insular masses. The
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THE SCANDINAVIAN FIOEDS. £5tills s
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GLACIAL ACTION"—THE ASAR. 87Glaci
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GLACIAL ACTION—THE ASAE, 89in 184
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GLACIAL ACTION—THE ASAR. 01The be
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UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND. 93rather than
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LAKES. 96tops and headlands are now
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LAKES. 97to the Baltic, and no more
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EIYEKS. 99streams as the llhone or
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EIVEKS. 101amount of their rainfall
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CLIMATE. 103by engineers at 225,000
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CLIMATE. 105Cape ; in summer and wi
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CLIMATE. 107Even in the coldest win
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FLORA. 109of new species. The perfu
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FAUNA.Illwant of cheap fuel. In the
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EARLIEST INHABITANTS. 113later or p
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THE SWEDES AND NORWEGIANS. 115the p
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THE SWEDES AND NORWEGIANS. 117were
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TYPES AXD COSTUMES IN LAPLAND.
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120 SCANDINAVIA.dependent for his s
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122 SCANDINAVIA.churches, all with
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121 SCAHDINAYIA.the houses are main
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126 SCANDINAVIA.the point where the
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128 SCANDINAVIA.Saugesund guards th
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130 SCANDINAVIA.Spitzbergen and the
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132 SCANDINAVIA.Canal, whose sluice
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13-1 SCANDINAVIA.between the three
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13sSCANDINAVIA.Stockholm, capital o
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-ID>J)AV.ENVIRONS.*"-,;"3j~Zi^^n^"^
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138 SCANDINAVIA.and shipping are al
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140 SCANDINAVIA.temple where human
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112 SCANDINAVIA.mining district. Bu
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114 SCANDINAVIA.eruigratiori, which
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146 SCANDINAVIA.also yearly adds ma
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1-18 SCANDINAVIA.by regular parcell
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150 SCANDINAVIA.rodskjaer, each of
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152 SCANDINAVIA.which that of Ammeb
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15JSCANDINAVIA.between Christiania
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156 SCANDINAVIA.The Swedish system,
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View158 SCANDINAVIA.the exact relat
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1G0SCANDINAVIA.to pass a part of th
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162 SCANDINAVIA.and bailiffs {foged
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164 SCANDINAVIA.The Swedish Church
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106 SCANDINAVIA.The militia of the
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THE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE ARCTIC
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170 THE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE AEC
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SPITZBEEGEN. 171Jurassic, and even
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SPITZBERGEN. 173vicissitudes in the
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SPITZBERGEN. 175changes of temperat
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SPITZBEKOEN. 177captured ; but Nord
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WICHE'S LAND. 179to certain unauthe
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the expedition.But from this point
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RUSSIA IN EUROPE.CHAPTER I.GENERAL
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GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 185that have b
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LAKES AND RIVERS. 187St. Petersburg
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CLIMATE. 189Climate.— Vegetation.
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* Mean temperature in degrees Fahre
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INHABITANTS. 193groups, Uralo-Fiuni
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OEIGIXES OF RUSSIA. 195fifths of th
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THE VARANGIANS. 197the Novgorod Sla
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NOVGOROD IN HEB GLORY. 199the north
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POLISH ASCENDANCY.2C1historic highw
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GROWTH OF RUSSIA. 203herself be one
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SEABOARD AND BOUNDARIES.where could
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CHAPTER II.ALTHOUGH forming part of
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GLACIALFINLAND :ACTION. 209elevatio
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FINLAND: LAKES. 211It looks as if a
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FINLAND: LAKES. 213it has retained
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FINLAND: CLIMATE. 215Climate.— Ve
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FINLAND: INHABITANTS. 217with the R
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FINLAND: TOrOGEAPHY. 219Forsby, on
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FINLAND : NATURALRESOURCES. 221of S
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FINLAND: POTOLATION. 223Industry is
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FINLAND : GOVERNMENT.225one iu twen
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CHAPTER III.THE BALTIC PROVINCES.(E
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TEE BALTIC PROVINCE*. 229drainage i
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TIIE BALTIC PROVINCES. 231and geolo
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THE BALTIC PROVINCES. 233composed t
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THE BALTIC PK0YENCE8. 235vessels, a
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THE BALTIC ITiOVlXCES. 237capital o
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THE LALTIC rKOVIXCE*. 239approaches
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CHAPTER IV.poland (polska).Historic
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POLAND. 243successors soon lost mos
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POLAND. 245in appearance. It was ev
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'•',|',.jl"n -''
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248 RUSSIA JN EEBOrE.Like all civil
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230 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.some of the la
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25 2 KtTSSIA IN EUEOPE.In the "Wart
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254 RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.Few cities of
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CHAPTER V.UPPER DVINA AND NIEMEN BA
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258 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.The Niemen, wh
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260 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.and representi
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262 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.breathing a de
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2G4 RUSSIA IX BUEOPE.labourers rece
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266 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.Jesuits was on
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CHAPTER VI.DNIEPER AND DNIESTER BAS
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'.;.270 RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.on the sur
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272I1; -ssl A IN EUROPE.Water Syste
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271 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Nearly all its
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27GRUSSIA IN EUEOPE.nowhere an abso
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27KPITSSIA IN EUROPE.side of the li
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280 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Iii the coast
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2S2RUSSIA IN EUROPE.and beyond it t
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284 . RUSSIAIX EUROPE.Russians may
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28GRUSSIA IN EUKOPE.Topography.The
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288 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Lug, a tributa
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,;290 RUSSIA IX ETTBOEE.names corre
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292 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.In the ninth c
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201 KUSSIA IN EUEOPE.whence thev so
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29 C RUSSIA IX EUROrE.thousands of
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298 RUSSIA IN ETJEOrE.and in the st
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800 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.provinces, and
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:v.".-'.•302 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.and
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304 EUSSIA IX EUROl'E.enemies from
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306 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.Fanatics are e
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308 RUSSIA IN EUROrE.was one of the
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310 RUSSIA IX ETJEOPE.rate the over
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812 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.opposite bank
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8URUSSIA IN EUEOrE.Ilaji-Bey liman,
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316 RUSSIA TX EUBOPEThe quality of
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318 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.the Moldavian
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:;-nEUSSIA IN EUEOPE.oi' (lie river
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322 EUSSIA IN EUROPE.fallin g from
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324 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.jslaiddown at
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826 i;l SSIA IX EUROPE.of the same
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328 BUSSIA IN EUROPE.history is pre
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330 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.woven stuffs,
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B32RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.Byzantine coins
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334 Bl SSIA IN EUEOPE.Nevertheless
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ST. PETEESBTJEG. 335On the shores o
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.;& 'i;J illVinlSii
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ST. PETERSBURG. 337including the hu
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ST. PETERSBURG. 339Palace, contains
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CHAPTER VIII.LANDS DRAINING TO THE
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ARCTIC RUSSIA. 843stretching southw
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ARCTIC RUSSIA.3Urunning north-west
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ARCTIC RUSSIA. 347from 40 to TO fee
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TIIK WHITE SEA. 349which it is dist
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THE SAMOYEDS. 851Russian plains sou
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ZIRYANIANS. 853or Ch tides, as the
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ONEGA. 155in the first half of the
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AKCHANGEL. :;:,7chief centre of tra
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NOVAYA ZEMLYA. 359frequented by the
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NOVAYA ZEMLYA. 363Government survey
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theCHAPTER IX.VOLGA AND URAL BASINS
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THE VOLGA. 365and rafts are then ab
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THE VOLGA DELTA.3G7narrow peninsula
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Tin: VOLGA DELTA. 369thirds of that
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TUE CASriAX SEA. 371light navigatio
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LACUSTRINE AND SALT STEPPES OF THE
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THE SOUTHERN URALS. 375their operat
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THE SOUTHERN HEALS. 877other plains
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THE GEEAT RUSSIANS. 879the spring f
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THE GREAT RUSSIANS. 881the subject.
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THE GREAT RUSSIANS. 883the mingled
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RELIGIOUS SECTS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 38
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RELIGIOUS SECTS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 38
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RfBINSK. 389industrial centres in X
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TYTES AM) COSTUMES IN THE GOVEKNMEK
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OROL— TULA. 391the artisan classe
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MOSCOW. 393Vitebsk and Smolensk, th
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MOSCOW. 395that " Moscow is celebra
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RIAZAN-KASIMOV. 397monastery. It is
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NIJNI-NOVGOROD. 399paint as many as
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NIJNI-NOVGOBOD. 401The district whe
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THE MORDYINIANS. 403down the Volga
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CHEREMISSIANS—CHUVASHES. 405conne
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KAZAN TATARS. 407Bulgarliks. Differ
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PENZA. 4091875. The kindred Voguls
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BOLOAE. 411history of the Russian s
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SLA.TOUST—VIATKA. 4131721. Thanks
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THE KAIMUK8. 415some Turki tribes,
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SIMBIRSK—SAMAEA. 417enthusiasm in
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DUBOVEA—SAREPTA—-TZAROV. 419the
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THE URAL COSSACKS. 421place having
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THE DON. 423been levelled by the ac
Page 527 and 528: THE SEA OF AZOV. 425basin.Since 186
Page 529 and 530: iTHE SEA OF AZOV. 427especially is
Page 531 and 532: THE SEA OF AZOV. 429the salt consum
Page 533 and 534: 'THE DON COSSACKS. 431Inhabitants.
Page 535 and 536: THE DOX COSSACKS. 433families, Saxo
Page 537 and 538: VOEONEJ—KHARKOV. 435as Kozlor and
Page 539 and 540: GKUGUYEV—SLA.VANSK—SLAYANOSEBBS
Page 541 and 542: EOSTOV—AZOV-TAGANROG. 439head of
Page 544 and 545: ;«,
Page 547 and 548: CHAPTER XLTHE CRIMEA.HE Crimean pen
Page 549 and 550: THE CRIMEA. 443times facilitated co
Page 551 and 552: TIIE CRIMEA. 445and according to th
Page 555 and 556: THE CRIMEA. 447a reaction which lus
Page 559 and 560: SEBASTOPOL. 449The famous siege of
Page 565 and 566: KAFFA—KERTCH. 451often commanding
Page 567 and 568: POPULATION. 453surprisingly from pr
Page 569 and 570: POPULATION. 455far inferior to that
Page 571 and 572: POPULATION. 457The Russians, as is
Page 573 and 574: AGRICULTURE. 459who are obliged to
Page 575 and 576: TEE MIE, OR COMMUNE. 461taiuly rece
Page 577: THE MIE, OE COMMUNE. 463both " vill
Page 581 and 582: COMMEKCE. 46775,680,000 gallons of
Page 583 and 584: RAILWAYS.4G9long. Yet, nofcwithstan
Page 585 and 586: EDUCATION. 471Education.In educatio
Page 587 and 588: GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 473s
Page 589 and 590: GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 475m
Page 591 and 592: -•>THE CHURCH—THE ARMY. 477"whi
Page 593 and 594: THE AKMY AND NAVY. 479Some of the R
Page 595 and 596: Hibrring,Aalborg,j(suburbYiborg,APP
Page 597 and 598: AITENDIX. 483EL—COMMERCE.Shipping
Page 599 and 600: APPENDIX. 485Area axd Population -o
Page 601 and 602: APPENDIX. 487VI.—MANUFACTORIES NO
Page 603 and 604: INDEX.Aa River. Kurlfmd, 229Livonia
Page 605 and 606: INDEX.1U1Frithiof Glacier, 173Frost
Page 607 and 608: INDEX. 493Mezen, 358Gulf, 343River,
Page 609 and 610: INDEX. 495Skj&lfjanaifli6t, 34SkjSr
Page 614 and 615: ,'.J'4T"^L._,.'•;--£'in **£%^SS
Page 616: "VUNIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS-URBA3 0112
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