The universal geography : earth and its inhabitants

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 473special form under the influence of the Mongolians and of the ecclesiastical andlegal usages inherited of Byzantium. The Czarism of the Romanovs receivedits final touch from the bureaucratic institutions introduced from Germany, andfrom the absolute ideas of legitimacy elevated by Joseph de Maistre into Statedogmas. Thus the autocratic power of the Emperor is, in theory at least, to someextent due to the reaction from the French Revolution, consolidated by thedissensions of the various nationalities in the empire, especially since the annexationof Poland. For even since the time of Peter the Great the autocracy of theCzar has not always been an absolute principle. Peter drew up reports for theSenate, although this body had been created by himself, while in 1730 theEmpress Anne signed the charter limiting the autocracy by a council of the chieffunctionaries. And although this charter was afterwards torn up, yet Alexander I.endeavoured, with his friends, to found a " Committee of Public Safety " for thepurpose of studying the means of " bridling the despotism of hio Government."Legislative, administrative, judicial power flow all from the Czar, who isbound to respect only the old laws guaranteeing the predominance of the NationalChurch and the order of succession to the throne. But based as they are on the" right divine," may not these laws themselves be modified by the same right ?In theory the empire moves only at the pleasure of the Czar.Peter the Great, reluctant to avail himself of the council of the boyards {dumahdiarskayd), or of the States General, created in 1711 an assembly which hasnever ceased to exist, but whose functions have been frequently changed.This isthe so-called "Directing Senate" (pramtel&t-voymhchiy senat), which he is saidto have wished to assimilate to the Dutch States General. To it " everything wasto be intrusted ;" " all were to obey it as the Czar himself; " and its decrees werecalled ukazes, as if they emanated from him. But the appointment of its memberslay with the Emperor, who, four years afterwards, named a " Reviser-Generalof the ukazes, and then selected every month an officer of the guard to watch overthe legislators, and conduct them to prison if they failed in their duty. Hehimself bullied them with threats of forfeiture, disgrace, and death, in case ofremissness. At present this institution is merely a court for registration andpublication of the imperial decrees, and in judicial matters a Supreme Court ofCassation. Its titles of "Keeper of the Laws," "Controller of all the AdministrativeDepartments," " Defender of every Russian citizen's legal rights," areempty formulas, or justified only in trivial matters.The only dignitaries entitled, by virtue of their office, to share in the legislativefunctions are the ministers. By their reports, issued with the imperialapprobation, and still more by their explanatory circular notes, they enjoy verygreat authority. There are eleven ministerial departments—Imperial Household,Foreign Office, War, Navy, Home Office, Public Instruction, Finance, Justice,Crown Lands, Public Works, General Control.Each minister depends directly onthe sovereign, and the ministerial functions are, moreover, confided to the head ofthe third section of the Imperial Chancery—tbat is, the secret police ; to thedirector of the fourth section, who, in the name of the reigning Empress, administers