The universal geography : earth and its inhabitants

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176 TUE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN.consisting of SI plants common to Greenland, and G9 found also in Scandinavia.Of the various species there is only one edible, the Cochlearia fenestrate, which,beino- less bitter than its southern congeners, may be eaten as a salad, and alsosupplies a valuable preventive against scurvy.Including the cetacea, there are 16 species of mammals, of which 4 onlyare land animals ; and even the white bear is rather nomadic than indigenous,Fig. 86.— Foul Bay, Spitzbeegen.passing on floating ice from island to island. The other land mammals are thereindeer, a short-tailed rat like that found on the shores of Hudson Bay,and the arctic fox, hunted for its valuable fur. The reindeer was supposed tohave been introduced by the Russians or Scandinavians ; but in 1610, long beforethey reached the archipelago, the English explorer, Jonas Poole, hunted the reindeer,and gave its name to Horn Sound, from the antlers of one of these annualswhich he there found. Between 1860 and 1868 as many as 3,000 were annually
SPITZBEKOEN. 177captured ; but Nordenskjold asks how such losses could be repaired, and mentions,without adopting it, the opinion of certain naturalists, who speak of migrationsfrom Novaya Zemlya on drift-ice.The walrus, of which 130 were taken during the season by sixteen vessels in1829, has almost disappeared from the southern seaboard, and schools of thirty toforty are now met only on the north side. Multitudes of sea-fowl frequent theisolated rocks and reefs, where their nests are safe from the ravages of the fox.But all these birds, comprising twenty-seven or twenty-eight distinct species, aremigratory, with the exception of the ptarmigan, which remains all the year round.There are no reptiles, and the surrounding waters were long supposed tobe destituteof fish ; but as many as twenty species had been recorded up to the year 1861.Malmgren found fifteen species only of insects, and butterflies, grasshoppers, andcoleoptera are all wanting. In the snows that melt at contact with the sea-waterthere are myriads of phosphorescent Crustacea, which dart about like blue sparks,producing the effect of a vivid display of fireworks.Like the bird of passage, man visits Spitsbergen only during the summerseason. Nevertheless, shipwrecked sailors, hunters, and naturalists have winteredon its shores ; and a Russian named Starashtchin, after passing twenty-three yearsat Green Harbour, an inlet of the Ijs-fiord, on the west coast, died there of oldage in 1826. All the remains of huts, by whomsoever erected, are known as" Russian huts." The archipelago was much more frequented during the lastcentury than at present. At that epoch the great cetacea swarmed in the surroundingseas, and were yearly hunted by as ruanjr as 12,000 whalers. Villages built ofplanks were erected under the shelter of the headlands ; temporary internationalfairs were held on the beach ; and regular battles at times took place between thecrews of the rival or hostile fleets.The finest village was Smeerenberg, belongingto the Dutch, who were the most numerous and energetic. Here a whole quarter,known as the " Haarlem Kitchen," was occupied by those engaged in boiling downthe blubber.During the period between 1669 and 1778, 14,167 Dutch whalers,frequenting the waters especially in the west and north-west, captured 57,590animals, yielding a profit of £3,710,000.Smeerenberg, which stands at the north-west corner of the great island, wasvisited in 1878 by the Dutch schooner, Willem Barents, when a monument waserected, in the name of the nation, to the navigators who discovered thearchipelago, and to their fellow-countrymen who here perished. On the samecoast the Basques, the Hanseatic traders, the Danes, and the Norwegians hadtheir chief fishing stations. Farther south is Magdalena Bay, which has beencarefully explored by naturalists, and on the north-east Foul Bay, one of the mostfrequented havens. Still farther north are the Norway Isles, where Sabine madehis magnetic observations, and which became the central point for the astronomicalobservations of Nordenskjold and his associates.This spot, or some neighbouringheadland, might perhaps be the most convenient site for one of those circumpolarobservatories which Weyprecht proposes to establish for the purpose of studyingin all their details the meteorological perturbations of the arctic regions. In
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LIBRARYOF THEr ry of Illinois.
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CITYUOAD.
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ivCONTEXTS.PAOBChap. II. Finland 20
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.ILLUSTRATIONS
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MonasteryLIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S.PAG
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2 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.islands,
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4 TIIE NOKTH-EAST ATLANTIC.The velo
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6THE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.boat manne
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8 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.the norma
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110 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.pole to
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12 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.Mohn has
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14 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.opposing
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1GTHE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.constant
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18 THE NOETH-EAST ATLANTIC.THE BALT
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•.'It1,10,I•aTHE NOBTH-EAST ATL
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22 THE NORTH-EAST ATLANTIC.water-li
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ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.I.—
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2GISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.The
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28 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.pe
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80 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.re
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32 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.ov
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34 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.no
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36 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.ar
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33 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.Th
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10 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.en
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42 ISLANDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC.fo
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44 ISLANDS OF THE XOETH ATLANTIC.Mi
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Sudur-Umdaemid46 ISLANDS OF THE NOR
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SCANDINAVIA.CHAPTER I.jEEPER though
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THE TIiNINSULA OP JYLLAND. 49Katteg
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THE PENINSULA OF JYLLAND. 51the mud
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THE DANISH ISLANDS. 53a number of l
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THE DANISH ISLANDS. 55— consist o
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INHABITANTS—PREHISTORIC REMAINS.
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INHABITANTS—PREHISTORIC REMAINS.
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TOPOGRAPHY. 61Topography.All the im
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•COPENHAGEN .THESOUfS t- i i- 6 B
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COPENHAGEN.G3sea, and the land rout
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COPENHAGEN. 65and a model of its ki
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SOCIAL CONDITIONS—OCCUPATIONS. 67
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SOCIAL CONDITIONS—OCCUPATIONS.G9e
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ADMINISTRATION—COLONIES. 71Assemb
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CHAPTER II.THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSU
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nrsiCAL features of noeytay. 75with
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,RARY
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78 SCANDIXAYTA.o-laciers -were cons
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80 M'AXDINAVIA.opening like crevice
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B2SCANDINAVIA.other equally dangero
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JJ50GEDALSF0SSEN, IN THE DISTRICT O
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M SI AXDIXAYIA.insular masses. The
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THE SCANDINAVIAN FIOEDS. £5tills s
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GLACIAL ACTION"—THE ASAR. 87Glaci
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GLACIAL ACTION—THE ASAE, 89in 184
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GLACIAL ACTION—THE ASAR. 01The be
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UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND. 93rather than
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LAKES. 96tops and headlands are now
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LAKES. 97to the Baltic, and no more
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EIYEKS. 99streams as the llhone or
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EIVEKS. 101amount of their rainfall
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CLIMATE. 103by engineers at 225,000
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CLIMATE. 105Cape ; in summer and wi
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CLIMATE. 107Even in the coldest win
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FLORA. 109of new species. The perfu
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FAUNA.Illwant of cheap fuel. In the
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EARLIEST INHABITANTS. 113later or p
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THE SWEDES AND NORWEGIANS. 115the p
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THE SWEDES AND NORWEGIANS. 117were
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TYPES AXD COSTUMES IN LAPLAND.
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120 SCANDINAVIA.dependent for his s
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122 SCANDINAVIA.churches, all with
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121 SCAHDINAYIA.the houses are main
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126 SCANDINAVIA.the point where the
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128 SCANDINAVIA.Saugesund guards th
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130 SCANDINAVIA.Spitzbergen and the
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132 SCANDINAVIA.Canal, whose sluice
Page 176 and 177: 13-1 SCANDINAVIA.between the three
Page 178: 13sSCANDINAVIA.Stockholm, capital o
Page 181: -ID>J)AV.ENVIRONS.*"-,;"3j~Zi^^n^"^
Page 184: 138 SCANDINAVIA.and shipping are al
Page 188 and 189: 140 SCANDINAVIA.temple where human
Page 190 and 191: 112 SCANDINAVIA.mining district. Bu
Page 192 and 193: 114 SCANDINAVIA.eruigratiori, which
Page 194 and 195: 146 SCANDINAVIA.also yearly adds ma
Page 196 and 197: 1-18 SCANDINAVIA.by regular parcell
Page 198 and 199: 150 SCANDINAVIA.rodskjaer, each of
Page 200 and 201: 152 SCANDINAVIA.which that of Ammeb
Page 202 and 203: 15JSCANDINAVIA.between Christiania
Page 204 and 205: 156 SCANDINAVIA.The Swedish system,
Page 206 and 207: View158 SCANDINAVIA.the exact relat
Page 208 and 209: 1G0SCANDINAVIA.to pass a part of th
Page 210 and 211: 162 SCANDINAVIA.and bailiffs {foged
Page 212 and 213: 164 SCANDINAVIA.The Swedish Church
Page 214 and 215: 106 SCANDINAVIA.The militia of the
Page 216 and 217: THE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE ARCTIC
Page 218 and 219: 170 THE EUROPEAN ISLANDS OF THE AEC
Page 221 and 222: SPITZBEEGEN. 171Jurassic, and even
Page 223 and 224: SPITZBERGEN. 173vicissitudes in the
Page 225: SPITZBERGEN. 175changes of temperat
Page 229 and 230: WICHE'S LAND. 179to certain unauthe
Page 231 and 232: the expedition.But from this point
Page 237 and 238: RUSSIA IN EUROPE.CHAPTER I.GENERAL
Page 239 and 240: GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 185that have b
Page 241 and 242: LAKES AND RIVERS. 187St. Petersburg
Page 243 and 244: CLIMATE. 189Climate.— Vegetation.
Page 245 and 246: * Mean temperature in degrees Fahre
Page 247 and 248: INHABITANTS. 193groups, Uralo-Fiuni
Page 249 and 250: OEIGIXES OF RUSSIA. 195fifths of th
Page 251 and 252: THE VARANGIANS. 197the Novgorod Sla
Page 253 and 254: NOVGOROD IN HEB GLORY. 199the north
Page 255 and 256: POLISH ASCENDANCY.2C1historic highw
Page 257 and 258: GROWTH OF RUSSIA. 203herself be one
Page 259 and 260: SEABOARD AND BOUNDARIES.where could
Page 261 and 262: CHAPTER II.ALTHOUGH forming part of
Page 263 and 264: GLACIALFINLAND :ACTION. 209elevatio
Page 265 and 266: FINLAND: LAKES. 211It looks as if a
Page 267 and 268: FINLAND: LAKES. 213it has retained
Page 269 and 270: FINLAND: CLIMATE. 215Climate.— Ve
Page 273 and 274: FINLAND: INHABITANTS. 217with the R
Page 275 and 276: FINLAND: TOrOGEAPHY. 219Forsby, on
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FINLAND : NATURALRESOURCES. 221of S
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FINLAND: POTOLATION. 223Industry is
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FINLAND : GOVERNMENT.225one iu twen
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CHAPTER III.THE BALTIC PROVINCES.(E
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TEE BALTIC PROVINCE*. 229drainage i
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TIIE BALTIC PROVINCES. 231and geolo
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THE BALTIC PROVINCES. 233composed t
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THE BALTIC PK0YENCE8. 235vessels, a
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THE BALTIC ITiOVlXCES. 237capital o
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THE LALTIC rKOVIXCE*. 239approaches
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CHAPTER IV.poland (polska).Historic
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POLAND. 243successors soon lost mos
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POLAND. 245in appearance. It was ev
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'•',|',.jl"n -''
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248 RUSSIA JN EEBOrE.Like all civil
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230 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.some of the la
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25 2 KtTSSIA IN EUEOPE.In the "Wart
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254 RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.Few cities of
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CHAPTER V.UPPER DVINA AND NIEMEN BA
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258 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.The Niemen, wh
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260 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.and representi
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262 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.breathing a de
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2G4 RUSSIA IX BUEOPE.labourers rece
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266 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.Jesuits was on
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CHAPTER VI.DNIEPER AND DNIESTER BAS
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'.;.270 RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.on the sur
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272I1; -ssl A IN EUROPE.Water Syste
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271 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Nearly all its
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27GRUSSIA IN EUEOPE.nowhere an abso
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27KPITSSIA IN EUROPE.side of the li
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280 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Iii the coast
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2S2RUSSIA IN EUROPE.and beyond it t
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284 . RUSSIAIX EUROPE.Russians may
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28GRUSSIA IN EUKOPE.Topography.The
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288 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.Lug, a tributa
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,;290 RUSSIA IX ETTBOEE.names corre
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292 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.In the ninth c
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201 KUSSIA IN EUEOPE.whence thev so
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29 C RUSSIA IX EUROrE.thousands of
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298 RUSSIA IN ETJEOrE.and in the st
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800 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.provinces, and
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:v.".-'.•302 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.and
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304 EUSSIA IX EUROl'E.enemies from
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306 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.Fanatics are e
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308 RUSSIA IN EUROrE.was one of the
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310 RUSSIA IX ETJEOPE.rate the over
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812 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.opposite bank
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8URUSSIA IN EUEOrE.Ilaji-Bey liman,
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316 RUSSIA TX EUBOPEThe quality of
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318 RUSSIA IX EUROPE.the Moldavian
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:;-nEUSSIA IN EUEOPE.oi' (lie river
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322 EUSSIA IN EUROPE.fallin g from
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324 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.jslaiddown at
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826 i;l SSIA IX EUROPE.of the same
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328 BUSSIA IN EUROPE.history is pre
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330 RUSSIA IN EUROPE.woven stuffs,
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B32RUSSIA IN EUEOPE.Byzantine coins
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334 Bl SSIA IN EUEOPE.Nevertheless
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ST. PETEESBTJEG. 335On the shores o
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.;& 'i;J illVinlSii
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ST. PETERSBURG. 337including the hu
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ST. PETERSBURG. 339Palace, contains
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CHAPTER VIII.LANDS DRAINING TO THE
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ARCTIC RUSSIA. 843stretching southw
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ARCTIC RUSSIA.3Urunning north-west
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ARCTIC RUSSIA. 347from 40 to TO fee
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TIIK WHITE SEA. 349which it is dist
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THE SAMOYEDS. 851Russian plains sou
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ZIRYANIANS. 853or Ch tides, as the
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ONEGA. 155in the first half of the
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AKCHANGEL. :;:,7chief centre of tra
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NOVAYA ZEMLYA. 359frequented by the
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NOVAYA ZEMLYA. 363Government survey
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theCHAPTER IX.VOLGA AND URAL BASINS
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THE VOLGA. 365and rafts are then ab
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THE VOLGA DELTA.3G7narrow peninsula
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Tin: VOLGA DELTA. 369thirds of that
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TUE CASriAX SEA. 371light navigatio
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LACUSTRINE AND SALT STEPPES OF THE
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THE SOUTHERN URALS. 375their operat
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THE SOUTHERN HEALS. 877other plains
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THE GEEAT RUSSIANS. 879the spring f
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THE GREAT RUSSIANS. 881the subject.
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THE GREAT RUSSIANS. 883the mingled
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RELIGIOUS SECTS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 38
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RELIGIOUS SECTS OF GREAT RUSSIA. 38
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RfBINSK. 389industrial centres in X
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TYTES AM) COSTUMES IN THE GOVEKNMEK
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OROL— TULA. 391the artisan classe
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MOSCOW. 393Vitebsk and Smolensk, th
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MOSCOW. 395that " Moscow is celebra
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RIAZAN-KASIMOV. 397monastery. It is
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NIJNI-NOVGOROD. 399paint as many as
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NIJNI-NOVGOBOD. 401The district whe
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THE MORDYINIANS. 403down the Volga
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CHEREMISSIANS—CHUVASHES. 405conne
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KAZAN TATARS. 407Bulgarliks. Differ
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PENZA. 4091875. The kindred Voguls
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BOLOAE. 411history of the Russian s
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SLA.TOUST—VIATKA. 4131721. Thanks
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THE KAIMUK8. 415some Turki tribes,
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SIMBIRSK—SAMAEA. 417enthusiasm in
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DUBOVEA—SAREPTA—-TZAROV. 419the
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THE URAL COSSACKS. 421place having
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THE DON. 423been levelled by the ac
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THE SEA OF AZOV. 425basin.Since 186
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iTHE SEA OF AZOV. 427especially is
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THE SEA OF AZOV. 429the salt consum
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'THE DON COSSACKS. 431Inhabitants.
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THE DOX COSSACKS. 433families, Saxo
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VOEONEJ—KHARKOV. 435as Kozlor and
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GKUGUYEV—SLA.VANSK—SLAYANOSEBBS
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EOSTOV—AZOV-TAGANROG. 439head of
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;«,
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CHAPTER XLTHE CRIMEA.HE Crimean pen
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THE CRIMEA. 443times facilitated co
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TIIE CRIMEA. 445and according to th
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THE CRIMEA. 447a reaction which lus
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SEBASTOPOL. 449The famous siege of
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KAFFA—KERTCH. 451often commanding
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POPULATION. 453surprisingly from pr
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POPULATION. 455far inferior to that
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POPULATION. 457The Russians, as is
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AGRICULTURE. 459who are obliged to
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TEE MIE, OR COMMUNE. 461taiuly rece
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THE MIE, OE COMMUNE. 463both " vill
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MINING AND MANUFACTURES.4G5a more f
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COMMEKCE. 46775,680,000 gallons of
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RAILWAYS.4G9long. Yet, nofcwithstan
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EDUCATION. 471Education.In educatio
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GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 473s
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GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 475m
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-•>THE CHURCH—THE ARMY. 477"whi
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THE AKMY AND NAVY. 479Some of the R
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Hibrring,Aalborg,j(suburbYiborg,APP
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AITENDIX. 483EL—COMMERCE.Shipping
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APPENDIX. 485Area axd Population -o
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APPENDIX. 487VI.—MANUFACTORIES NO
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INDEX.Aa River. Kurlfmd, 229Livonia
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INDEX.1U1Frithiof Glacier, 173Frost
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INDEX. 493Mezen, 358Gulf, 343River,
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INDEX. 495Skj&lfjanaifli6t, 34SkjSr
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,'.J'4T"^L._,.'•;--£'in **£%^SS
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"VUNIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS-URBA3 0112
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