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<strong>Proceedings</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Third</strong> <strong>International</strong> <strong>Conference</strong> on Invasive SpartinaChapter 4: Spartina Control and Managementmaintain elevated sediments and altered biogeochemicalprocesses (Fig. 2A, left side). Active water movement and<strong>the</strong> scouring action <strong>of</strong> shifting cobbles and gravel shouldhamper this process. Ultimately, we predict that analternative state will not be maintained due to <strong>the</strong> transitionalprocess <strong>of</strong> water movement increasing sediment erosionaround plant roots and decreasing subsequent vascular plantand infaunal recruitment. As a result, negative feedbackprocesses in <strong>the</strong> maintenance component <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> alternativestate will shift cobble beach community structure to arestored state (Fig. 2A, right side). Algal recruitment willincrease as sediment erosion occurs and cobbles re-emerge,pushing <strong>the</strong> community into a positive feedback loop thatincludes loss <strong>of</strong> sediment, decreased native vascular plantrecruitment, and continued increases in algal and infaunalrecruitment (Fig. 2A, right side).We hypo<strong>the</strong>size that mudflat habitats, because <strong>the</strong>yexperience lower wave action, will have increased vascularplant recruitment, and allow for <strong>the</strong> maintenance <strong>of</strong>cordgrass sediment accretion and biogeochemical processes(Fig. 2A, left side). We expect that a positive feedback loopgenerated by slower water movement and <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong>vascular plants will maintain sediment characteristicscreated by cordgrass, decrease algal and infaunalrecruitment, and continue to increase native vascular plantrecruitment (Fig. 2A, left side).Finally, we suggest that high and low salinity marshespreviously invaded by cordgrass will experience recruitment<strong>of</strong> higher intertidal vascular plant assemblages, ra<strong>the</strong>r than<strong>the</strong> original assemblage, due to <strong>the</strong> increased tidal elevationproduced by cordgrass-accreted sediments. We expect that<strong>the</strong>se plants will be good at maintaining sediment depth andbiogeochemical processes originally created by cordgrass.Their presence will be maintained via a positive feedbackloop that increases <strong>the</strong>ir own continued recruitment whiledecreasing that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lower intertidal plant communitypresent before <strong>the</strong> invasion (Fig. 2B, left side). However, ifwater movement is sufficient to erode sediments or if plantrecruitment is low or delayed, marsh communities may shiftinto a restored state (Fig. 2B, right side).Testing <strong>the</strong>se hypo<strong>the</strong>ses will require both large andsmall-scale experiments in areas where cordgrass has beenremoved. Ultimately, this research will provide natural areamanagers with better ways <strong>of</strong> predicting and evaluating <strong>the</strong>consequences <strong>of</strong> post-removal impact across differenthabitat types. It may be that active removal <strong>of</strong> nativevascular plant assemblages will be necessary in habitats suchas mudflats where restoration could be continually hinderedby <strong>the</strong> recruitment and positive feedbacks produced by <strong>the</strong>seplants. Although invasive species removal and restoration isa critical component to <strong>the</strong> management <strong>of</strong> many naturalareas, most research is site or species-specific. The proposedresearch will help establish <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> a general<strong>the</strong>ory on <strong>the</strong> contextual dependence <strong>of</strong> invasive speciesremoval that can be applied to communities with varyingspecies assemblages, physical conditions, and degrees <strong>of</strong>invasion.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe thank <strong>the</strong> many hands that assisted with <strong>the</strong> researchincluding C. Catton, C. Gozart, E. Hellquist, A. Hysert, T.Reeder, T. Riordon, and T. Royce. The research wassupported by Washington and National Sea Grant Programs.REFERENCESBruno, J., and M.D. Bertness. 2001. Habitat modification andfacilitation in benthic marine communities. Pages 201-220 In:M.D. Bertness, S.D. Gaines, and M.E. Hay, eds., MarineCommunity Ecology. Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA, pp.201-210.Crooks, J. 2002. Characterizing ecosystem-level consequences <strong>of</strong>biological invasions: <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> ecosystem engineers. Oikos97:153-166.D’Antonio, C.D., and L.A. Meyerson. 2002. Exotic plant species asproblems and solutions in ecological restoration: a syn<strong>the</strong>sis.Restoration Ecology 10:703–713.Daehler, C.C., and D.R. Strong. 1996. Status, prediction andprevention <strong>of</strong> introduced cordgrass, Spartina spp. invasions inPacific estuaries, USA. Biological Conservation 78:51-58.Dethier, M.N., and S.D. Hacker. 2005. Physical factors vs. bioticresistance in controlling <strong>the</strong> invasion <strong>of</strong> an estuarine marsh grass.Ecological Applications 15:1273-1283.Dethier, M.N., and S.D. Hacker. 2004. Improving managementpractices for invasive cordgrass in <strong>the</strong> Pacific Northwest: a casestudy <strong>of</strong> Spartina anglica. Washington Sea Grant Publications,Seattle, WA, USA.Goss-Custard, J.D., and M.E. Moser. 1988. Rates <strong>of</strong> change in <strong>the</strong>numbers <strong>of</strong> Dunlin, Calidris alpina, wintering in British estuariesin relation to <strong>the</strong> spread <strong>of</strong> Spartina anglica. Journal <strong>of</strong> AppliedEcology 25:95-109.Grosholz, E. 2002. Ecological and evolutionary consequences <strong>of</strong>coastal invasions. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17:22–27.Hacker, S.D., and M.N. Dethier. 2006. Community modification bya grass invader has differing impacts for marine habitats. Oikos113:279-286.Hacker, S.D., and M.N. Dethier. 2009. Differing consequences <strong>of</strong>removing ecosystem-modifying invaders: Significance <strong>of</strong> impactand community context to restoration potential. In: J.A. Rilovand J.A. Crooks, eds., Biological Invasions in MarineEcosystems. Springer-Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 375-385.Hacker, S.D., D. Heimer, C.E. Hellquist, T.G. Reeder, B. Reeves,T. Riordan, and M.N. Dethier. 2001. A marine plant (Spartinaanglica) invades widely varying habitats: potential mechanisms<strong>of</strong> invasion and control. Biological Invasions 3:211-217.Hobbs, R.J., and S.E. Humphries. 1995. An integrated approach to<strong>the</strong> ecology and management <strong>of</strong> plant invasions. ConservationBiology 9:761–770.Jones, C.G., J.H. Lawton, and M. Shachak. 1994. Organisms asecosystem engineers. Oikos 689:373-386.Lewinton, R.C. 1969. The meaning <strong>of</strong> stability. In: Diversity andstability in ecological systems. Brookhaven Symposia in BiologyNo. 22. Brookhaven National Laboratories, Brookhaven, NY,USA, pp. 13-24.Maricle, B.R., and R.W. Lee. 2002. Aerenchyma development andoxygen transport in <strong>the</strong> estuarine cordgrasses Spartinaalterniflora and S. anglica. Aquatic Botany 74:109-120.Myers, J.H., D. Simberl<strong>of</strong>f, A.M. Kuris, and J.R. Carey. 2000.Eradication revisited: dealing with exotic species. Trends inEcology and Evolution 15:316-320.- 215 -
Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Management<strong>Proceedings</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Third</strong> <strong>International</strong> <strong>Conference</strong> on Invasive SpartinaO’Connell, K.A. 2002. Effects <strong>of</strong> invasive Atlantic smoothcordgrass(Spartina alterniflora) on infaunal macroinvertebratecommunities in sou<strong>the</strong>rn Willapa Bay, WA. MS Thesis, WesternWashington University, Bellingham, WA.Parker, I.M., D. Simberl<strong>of</strong>f, W.M. Lonsdale, K. Goodell, M.Wonham, P.M. Kareiva, M.H. Williamson, B. Von Holle, P.B.Moyle, J.E. Byers, and L. Goldwasser. 1999. Impact: toward aframework for understanding <strong>the</strong> ecological effects <strong>of</strong> invaders.Biological Invasions 1:3-19.Petratis, P.S., and R.E. Latham. 1999. The importance <strong>of</strong> scale intesting <strong>the</strong> origins <strong>of</strong> alternative community states. Ecology80:429-442.Power, M.E., D. Tilman, J.A. Estes, B.A. Menge, W.J. Bond, L.S.Mills, G. Daily, J.C. Castilla, J. Lubchenco, and R.T. Paine.1996. Challenges in <strong>the</strong> quest for keystones. Bioscience 46:609–620.Reeder, T.G., and S.D. Hacker. 2004. Factors contributing to <strong>the</strong>removal <strong>of</strong> a marine grass invader (Spartina anglica) andsubsequent potential for habitat restoration. Estuaries 27:244-252.Ruiz, G.M., P. F<strong>of</strong>on<strong>of</strong>f, A.H. Hines, and E.D. Grosholz. 1999.Nonindigenous species as stressors in estuarine and marinecommunities: assessing impacts and interactions. Limnology andOceanography 44:950–972.Su<strong>the</strong>rland, J.P. 1974. Multiple stable points in naturalcommunities. American Naturalist 108: 859-873.Triplet, P., C. Fagot, S. Van Imbeck, A. Sournia, and F. Sueur.2002. Rôle de la végétation dans l'utilisation de l'estran par leslimicoles. Alauda 70:445-449.Thompson, J.D. 1991. The biology <strong>of</strong> an invasive plant: Whatmakes Spartina anglica so successful? BioScience 41:393-401.Zavaleta, E.S., R.J. Hobbs, and H.A. Mooney. 2001. Viewinginvasive species removal in a whole-ecosystem context. Trendsin Ecology and Evolution 16:454-459.Zipperer, V.T. 1996. Ecological effects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> introducedcordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, on <strong>the</strong> benthic communitystructure <strong>of</strong> Willapa Bay, WA. MS Thesis, University <strong>of</strong>Washington, Seattle, WA.- 216 -
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FORWARD & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe <stro
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Community Spartina Education and St
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CHAPTER ONESpartina Biology
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Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
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