<str<strong>on</strong>g>Proceedings</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Third</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>ference</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Invasive</strong> SpartinaChapter 4: Spartina C<strong>on</strong>trol and Managementlarvae <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se flies develop inside young S. alterniflorashoots, feeding <strong>on</strong> meristem tissue and developing leaves.The result is death <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> shoot tip and no flower producti<strong>on</strong>in nearly 100% <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> stems that are infested. Both speciesoccur from Florida to Maine. The potency <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se flies liesin <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact that a single larva can kill a shoot. Bycomparis<strong>on</strong>, it takes approximately 200 planthoppers to killa shoot (Daehler and Str<strong>on</strong>g 1997). In our surveys, we foundseveral sites where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> shoot death due to this insectwas greater than 50%.O<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r promising candidates include <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sapsuckinginsects, Trig<strong>on</strong>otylus uhleri, Haliaspis spartinae, andProkelisia dolas. All three <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>se species have <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>advantage that <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y already occur in California, where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>native Spartina foliosa occurs. Thus, introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>seinsects to Washingt<strong>on</strong> does not pose a risk to S. foliosa if<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>y were to disperse from Washingt<strong>on</strong> to California. T.uhleri is a mirid bug that feeds primarily <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> tips <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>leaves. H. spartinae is a scale insect that occurs in lowdensities <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Atlantic Coast but can be found at very highdensities in San Francisco Bay. P. dolas is a close relative <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>our current bioc<strong>on</strong>trol agent. P. dolas has been shown to bemore tolerant <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> low host quality than P. marginata (Dennoet al. 2000), which suggests that it could be a potentbioc<strong>on</strong>trol agent. However, this species has been shown tooutcompete P. marginata (Denno et al. 2000). This could bedetrimental to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> overall bioc<strong>on</strong>trol program because unlikeP. marginata, P. dolas is unable to exploit <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Spartina occuring in mid to lower tidal elevati<strong>on</strong>s.UPDATE ON BIOCONTROL PROGRAMMuch has happened with regard to c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spartinain Willapa Bay and Puget Sound since this report was originallyprepared in 2004. In particular, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> state and federalagencies involved in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol program increased capacityand improved <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> herbicide c<strong>on</strong>trol treatmentsand eventually sprayed all Spartina-infested areas inWashingt<strong>on</strong> including bioc<strong>on</strong>trol sites in an effort to eradicate<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> plant. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2007, prior to herbicide treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> last remaining bioc<strong>on</strong>trol site, <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> P. marginata populati<strong>on</strong>was increasing and spreading in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> north end <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> WillapaBay with measured densities <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> more than 10,000 perm 2 , sufficient to cause browning <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> plants over a twoacrearea. The full impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> biological c<strong>on</strong>trol may never beknown. If P. marginata is capable <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> persisting <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> sparseshoots that remain, it may help suppress any reinvasi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Spartina if traditi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>trol methods are disc<strong>on</strong>tinued.CONCLUSIONSThe biological c<strong>on</strong>trol agent, Prokelisia marginata, hasa dem<strong>on</strong>strated capacity for reducing Spartina biomass andseed set in Washingt<strong>on</strong>. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first few years <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>bioc<strong>on</strong>trol program, poor overwintering survival <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> nymphskept populati<strong>on</strong>s from growing from year to year. With <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>introducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> P. marginata ecotypes from <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> East Coast,we are c<strong>on</strong>fident that we have provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> best opportunityfor P. marginata to be successful. P. marginata from RhodeIsland outperformed P. marginata from o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r locati<strong>on</strong>s in<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> first summer after release. Impacts to Spartina in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> lab(Daehler and Str<strong>on</strong>g 1997) and in field cages (Grevstad et al.2003) have been clearly dem<strong>on</strong>strated. Impacts <strong>on</strong> a muchlarger scale were beginning to be seen in 2007 prior toherbicide treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> bioc<strong>on</strong>tol sites.The success <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a biological c<strong>on</strong>trol program for Spartinacould be fur<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r improved with <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> screening andintroducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong>al bioc<strong>on</strong>trol agents. Severalpromising candidate agents have been selected from adiverse community <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> insects and o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r organisms that use S.alterniflora as a host in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>ir native range. Biological c<strong>on</strong>trolcould be a valuable tool in o<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r parts <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> world whereSpartina has invaded, especially where complete eradicati<strong>on</strong>is too expensive or not feasible. Even where traditi<strong>on</strong>alc<strong>on</strong>trol programs are underway, biological c<strong>on</strong>trol canc<strong>on</strong>tribute to Spartina reducti<strong>on</strong> in an integrated weedmanagement approach, or it can serve as a backup in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>case that complete eradicati<strong>on</strong> is not achieved.Unfortunately, San Francisco Bay is not a good targetlocati<strong>on</strong> for biological c<strong>on</strong>trol because <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> risk to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>native S. foliosa. However, it would be an excellent opti<strong>on</strong> inChina, New Zealand, and Australia where <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>re are no nativeSpartina species.ACKNOWLDEGMENTSWe would like to acknowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following agenciesand sp<strong>on</strong>sors who have made <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spartina bioc<strong>on</strong>trolprogram possible: Nati<strong>on</strong>al Sea Grant Program, U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, U.S. Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fish and Wildlife,Coastal Resource Alliance, Washingt<strong>on</strong> State Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Agriculture, Washingt<strong>on</strong> State Department <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> NaturalResources, and <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Willapa Nati<strong>on</strong>al Wildlife Refuge. Wewould also like to thank <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> following individuals who havec<strong>on</strong>tributed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> program in a wide variety <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways: BobDenno, Dino Garcia-Rossi, Robin Switzer, Carol O’Casey,Deanna McQuarrie, Hea<str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Davis, Allis<strong>on</strong> Fisher, KimPatten, Kathleen Sayce, Janie Civille, Todd Brownlee,Wendy Brown, Charlie Stenvall, Teri Butler, Dave Heimer,Kyle Murphy, Sue Moreno, Dick Casagrande, David Viola,and Lisa Tewksbury.REFERENCESCruttwell-McFayden, R.E. 1998. Biological c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> weeds. AnnualReview <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Entomology 43:369-393.Davis, L.V. and I.E. Gray. 1966. Z<strong>on</strong>al and seas<strong>on</strong>al distributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>insects in North Carolina salt marshes. Ecological M<strong>on</strong>ographs36:275-295.Davis, H.G., D.R. Str<strong>on</strong>g and D. Garcia-Rossi. 2002. The use <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>molecular assays to identify plant pathogenic organisms vectoredby biological c<strong>on</strong>trol agents. BioC<strong>on</strong>trol 47: 487-497.- 271 -
Chapter 4: Spartina C<strong>on</strong>trol and Management<str<strong>on</strong>g>Proceedings</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Third</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>ference</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Invasive</strong> SpartinaDaehler, C.C. and D.R. Str<strong>on</strong>g. 1995. Impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> high herbivoredensities <strong>on</strong> introduced smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora,invading San Francisco Bay, California. Estuaries 18:409-417.Daehler, C.C. and D.R. Str<strong>on</strong>g. 1997. Reduced herbivore resistancein introduced smooth cordgrass (S. alterniflora) after a century <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>herbivore-free growth. Oecologia 110:99-108.Denno, R.F. 1977. Comparis<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> assemblages <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> sap-feedinginsects (Homoptera-Hemiptera) inhabiting two structurally differentsalt marsh grasses in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> genus Spartina. Envir<strong>on</strong>mentalEntomology 6:359-372.Denno, R.F., L.W. Douglass, and D. Jacobs. 1985. Crowding andhost plant nutriti<strong>on</strong>, envir<strong>on</strong>mental determinants <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> wing-form inProkelisia marginata. Ecology 66:1588-1596.Denno, R.F., M.A. Peters<strong>on</strong>, C. Gratt<strong>on</strong>, J. Cheng, G.A. Langellotto,A.F. Huberty, and D.L. Finke. 2000. Feeding-inducedchanges in plant quality mediate interspecific competiti<strong>on</strong> betweensap-feeding herbivores. Ecology 81:1814-1827.Denoth, M., L. Frid, and J.H. Myers. 2002. Multiple agents in biologicalc<strong>on</strong>trol: improving <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> odds? Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol24:20-30.Garcia-Rossi, D., N. Rank, and D.R. Str<strong>on</strong>g. Potential for selfdefeatingbioc<strong>on</strong>trol? variati<strong>on</strong> in herbivore vulnerability am<strong>on</strong>ginvasive Spartina genotypes. Ecological Applicati<strong>on</strong>s 13:1640-1649.Grevstad, F.S., D.R. Str<strong>on</strong>g, D. Garcia-Rossi, R.W. Switzer, andM.S. Wecker. 2003. Biological c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spartina alterniflora inWillapa Bay, Washingt<strong>on</strong> using <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> planthopper Prokelisia marginata:agent specificity and early results. Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol27:32-42.Grevstad, F.S., M.S. Wecker, and R.W. Switzer. 2004 Habitattrade<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>fs in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> summer and winter performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> planthopperProkelisia marginata introduced against <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> intertidal grassSpartina alterniflora in Willapa Bay, WA. In: J. Cullen, ed. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Proceedings</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> XI <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Symposium <strong>on</strong> Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Weeds, April 27 – May 3, 2003. CSIRO, Canberra, Australia.Harris, P. 1981. Stress as a strategy in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> biological c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>weeds. In: Papavisa, G.C., ed. Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol in Crop Producti<strong>on</strong>,Beltsville Agricultural Research Center (BARC). Allanhead,Osman and Co., Totowa, New Jersey, pp. 333-340.McCoy, E.D. and J.R. Rey. 1981. Terrestrial arthropods <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>northwest Florida salt marshes: Coleoptera. Florida Entomologist64(2):405-411.M<strong>on</strong>tague, C.L., S.M. Bunker, E.B. Haines, M.L. Pace, and R.L.Wetzel. 1981. Aquatic Macroc<strong>on</strong>sumers. In: Pomeroy, L.R. andR.G. Wiegert, eds. The ecology <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> a saltmarsh. Springer-Verlag,New York, pp. 69-85.Myers, J.H. 1985. How many insects are necessary for successfulbioc<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> weeds? In: Delfosse, E.S., ed. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Proceedings</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g>VI <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Symposium <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Weeds.Vancouver, Canada, pp. 19-25.Newt<strong>on</strong>, N.H. 1984. Stem-Boring Insect Larvae <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spartina alternifloraLoisel. (Poaceae): Distributi<strong>on</strong>, Biology and Influence<strong>on</strong> Seed Producti<strong>on</strong>. Ph.D. Dissertati<strong>on</strong>, North Carolina StateUniversity, Raleigh.Nowierski, R.M., Z. Zeng, D. Schroeder, A. Gassmann, B.C. Fitzgerald,and M. Crist<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>aro. 2002. Habitat associati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Euphorbiaand Aphth<strong>on</strong>a species from Europe: Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> predictivemodels for natural enemy release with ordinati<strong>on</strong> analysis.Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol 23:1-17.Pembert<strong>on</strong>, R.W. 2000. Predictable risk to native plants in weedbiological c<strong>on</strong>trol. Oecologia 125: 489-494.Pringle, A.W. 1993. Spartina anglica col<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> and physicaleffects in <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tamar Estuary, Tasmania 1971-91. Papers and<str<strong>on</strong>g>Proceedings</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> Royal Society <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tasmania 127:1-10Stiling, P.D. and D.R. Str<strong>on</strong>g. 1983. Weak competiti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g stemborers, by means <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> murder. Ecology 64:770-778.Tauber, M.J., C. A. Tauber, and S. Masaki. 1986. Seas<strong>on</strong>al Adaptati<strong>on</strong>s<str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Insects. Oxford University Press.Tewksbury, L., R. Casagrande, B. Blossey, P. Häfliger, and M.Schwärzlander. 2002. Potential for biological c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Phragmitesaustralis in North America. Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol 23:191-212.Vince, S.W., I. Valiela, and J.M. Teal. 1981. An experimentalstudy <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> structure <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> herbivorous insect communities in a saltmarsh. Ecology 62:1662-1678.Witt, A.B.R. and A.J. McC<strong>on</strong>nachie. 2004. The potential for classicalbiological c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> invasive grass species with special referenceto invasive Sporobolus spp. (Poaceae) in Australia. In:Cullen, J. ed. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Proceedings</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>the</str<strong>on</strong>g> XI <str<strong>on</strong>g>Internati<strong>on</strong>al</str<strong>on</strong>g> Symposium <strong>on</strong>Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> Weeds. April 27 – May 3, 2003. CSIRO,Canberra, Australia.Wu, M., S. Hacker, D. Ayres, and D.R. Str<strong>on</strong>g. 1999. Potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g>Prokelisia spp. as Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol Agents <str<strong>on</strong>g>of</str<strong>on</strong>g> EnglishCordgrass, Spartina anglica. Biological C<strong>on</strong>trol 16(3):267-273.- 272 -
- Page 2 and 3:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 4 and 5:
FORWARD & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe <stro
- Page 6 and 7:
TABLE OF CONTENTSForward & Acknowle
- Page 9 and 10:
Community Spartina Education and St
- Page 11 and 12:
included the docum
- Page 14:
CHAPTER ONESpartina Biology
- Page 17 and 18:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 19 and 20:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 21 and 22:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 23 and 24:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 25 and 26:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 28 and 29:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 30 and 31:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 32 and 33:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 34:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 37 and 38:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 39 and 40:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 42 and 43:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 44:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 47 and 48:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 49 and 50:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 51 and 52:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 53 and 54:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 55 and 56:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 57 and 58:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 60 and 61:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 62 and 63:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 64 and 65:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 66:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 69 and 70:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 71 and 72:
Chapter 1: Spartina Biology
- Page 74 and 75:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 76:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 79 and 80:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 81 and 82:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 83 and 84:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 86 and 87:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 88 and 89:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 90 and 91:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 92 and 93:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 94 and 95:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 96 and 97:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 98:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 101 and 102:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 103 and 104:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 105 and 106:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 108 and 109:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 110:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 113 and 114:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 115 and 116:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 117 and 118:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 119 and 120:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 122 and 123:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 124 and 125:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 126 and 127:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 128:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 131 and 132:
Chapter 2: Spartina Distribution an
- Page 134 and 135:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 136 and 137:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 138 and 139:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 140:
CHAPTER THREEEcosystem Effects <str
- Page 143 and 144:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 145 and 146:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 148 and 149:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 150 and 151:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 152:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 155 and 156:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 157 and 158:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 160 and 161:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 162 and 163:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 164:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 167 and 168:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 169 and 170:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 171 and 172:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 174 and 175:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 176:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 179 and 180:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 181 and 182:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 184 and 185:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 186 and 187:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 188 and 189:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 190 and 191:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 192 and 193:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 194 and 195:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 196:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 199 and 200:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 201 and 202:
Chapter 3: Ecosystem Effects <stron
- Page 204 and 205:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 206 and 207:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 208 and 209:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 210 and 211:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 212:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 216 and 217:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 218 and 219:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 220 and 221:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 222 and 223:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 224 and 225:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 226 and 227:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 228 and 229:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 230 and 231:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 232 and 233:
Proceedings <stron
- Page 234 and 235: Proceedings <stron
- Page 236 and 237: Proceedings <stron
- Page 238 and 239: Proceedings <stron
- Page 240 and 241: Proceedings <stron
- Page 242 and 243: Proceedings <stron
- Page 244 and 245: Proceedings <stron
- Page 246: Proceedings <stron
- Page 249 and 250: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 251 and 252: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 253 and 254: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 255 and 256: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 257 and 258: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 259 and 260: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 261 and 262: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 263 and 264: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 265 and 266: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 267 and 268: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 269 and 270: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 271 and 272: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 273 and 274: Chapter 4: Spartina Control and Man
- Page 276 and 277: Proceedings <stron
- Page 278 and 279: Proceedings <stron
- Page 280 and 281: Proceedings <stron
- Page 282 and 283: Proceedings <stron
- Page 286 and 287: Proceedings <stron
- Page 288 and 289: Proceedings <stron
- Page 290: Proceedings <stron