Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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Figure 7-7 View of an estuary taken fromspace. The photo shows the sediment plumeat the mouth of Madagascar’s Betsiboka Riveras it flows through the estuary and into theMozambique Channel. Because of its topography,heavy rainfall, and the clearing of forestsfor agriculture, Madagascar is the world’s mosteroded country.NASAHerring gullsPeregrine falconSnowyegretCordgrassShort-billeddowitcherPhytoplanktonMarshperiwinkleSmeltFigure 7-8 Natural capital: somecomponents and interactions in a saltmarsh ecosystem in a temperate areasuch as the United States. When theseorganisms die, decomposers breakdown their organic matter into mineralsused by plants. Colored arrows indicatetransfers of matter and energy betweenconsumers (herbivores), secondary (orhigher-level) consumers (carnivores),and decomposers. Organisms are notdrawn to scale.Soft-shelledclamProducer toprimaryconsumerPrimary tosecondaryconsumerZooplankton andsmall crustaceansBacteriaSecondary tohigher-levelconsumerClamwormAll consumersand producersto decomposers132 CHAPTER 7 Aquatic Biodiversity
The dominant organisms in mangrove forestswamps are trees that can grow in salt water. Thesetrees have extensive roots that extend above the water,where they can obtain oxygen and provide support forthe plant. These nutrient-rich forests are found in shelteredregions along tropical coasts (Figure 7-2).Because ocean waves do not reach these saltwaterecosystems, they collect mud and anaerobic sediment.The constant water movement in estuaries andtheir associated coastal wetlands stirs up the nutrientrichsilt, making it available to producers. Thesesystems filter toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients,sediments, and other pollutants. They reduce stormdamage by absorbing waves and storing excess waterproduced by storms. And they provide food, habitats,and nursery sites for a variety of aquatic species.Bad news. We are degrading or destroying some ofthe ecological services that these important ecosystemsprovide at no cost. Researchers estimate thatmore than a third of the world’s mangrove forestshave been destroyed—mostly for developing aquacultureshrimp farms, growing crops, and coastal developmentprojects.What Niches Do Rocky and Sandy ShoresProvide? Hold On, Dig In, or Hang Outin a ShellOrganisms in coastal areas experiencing daily low andhigh tides have evolved a number of ways to surviveunder harsh and changing conditions.The area of shoreline between low and high tides iscalled the intertidal zone. This is not an easy place tolive. Its organisms must be able to avoid being sweptaway or crushed by waves, and avoid or cope with beingimmersed during high tides and left high and dry(and much hotter) at low tides. They must also survivechanging levels of salinity when heavy rains dilute saltwater. To deal with such stresses, most intertidal organismshold on to something, dig in, or hide in protectiveshells.Some coasts have steep rocky shores pounded bywaves. The numerous pools and other niches in the intertidalzone of rocky shores contain a great variety ofspecies with different niches as shown in the top partof Figure 7-9 (p. 134).Other coasts have gently sloping barrier beaches, orsandy shores, with niches for different marine organismsas shown in the bottom portion of Figure 7-9.Most of them are hidden from view and survive byburrowing, digging, and tunneling in the sand. Thesesandy beaches and their adjoining coastal wetlandsare also home to a variety of shorebirds that feed inspecialized niches on crustaceans, insects, and otherorganisms (Figure 5-5, p. 92).What Are Barrier Islands? Natural Protectorsof the ShoreNarrow islands off some shores help protect coastalzones from storm waves, but developing these islandsreduces this natural protection and makes them riskyplaces to live.Barrier islands are low, narrow, sandy islands that formoffshore from a coastline. Most run parallel to the shore.They are found along some coasts such as most of NorthAmerica’s Atlantic and Gulf coasts. These islands helpprotect the mainland, estuaries, and coastal wetlandsfrom the onslaught of approaching storm waves.These beautiful but very limited pieces of real estateare prime targets for real estate development. Almostone-fourth of the area of barrier islands in theUnited States has been developed.Living on these islands can be risky. Sooner orlater, many of the structures humans build on lowlyingbarrier islands (Figure 7-10, p. 135), such asAtlantic City, New Jersey, and Miami Beach, Florida,are damaged or destroyed by flooding, severe beacherosion, or major storms (including hurricanes).Their low-lying beaches are constantly shifting,with gentle waves building them up and storms flatteningand eroding them. Currents running parallel tothe beaches constantly take sand from one area anddeposit it in another. Some beach communities spendlots of money to replace the eroded sand. But sooner orlater nature moves it somewhere else.Figure 7-11 (p. 135) shows that undisturbedbeaches on typical barrier islands have one or morerows of natural sand dunes with the sand held in placeby the roots of grasses. These dunes serve as the firstline of defense against the ravages of the sea at no cost.If we left it that way and built behind the second set ofdunes, these beaches would be safer places for peopleand many of the populations of natural organisms thatlive there. Mainland coastal cities, beaches, and undisturbedsalt marshes and estuaries behind these protectiveislands would also be safer from damage.But this real estate is so scarce and valuable thatdevelopers want to cover it with buildings and roads.In doing this, they are rarely required to take into accountthe storm protection and other free ecologicalservices the protective dunes provide. Thus the firstthing most coastal developers do is to remove the protectivedunes or build behind the first set of dunes.This means that large storms can flood and even sweepaway seaside buildings and severely erode the sandybeaches. Then we call these human-influenced eventsnatural disasters.Governments often provide owners with fairlycheap property insurance, funds for replenishingeroded sand, and grants and low-cost loans to rebuildafter damaging storms. This makes it less financiallyhttp://biology.brookscole.com/miller14133
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1Environmental Problems, TheirCause
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AirSOLAR ENERGYRESOURCESWaterEnergy
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changes that lead to an increasingl
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take the resources of 1.15 planet e
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Causes of Environmental Problems•
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Developing Countriesxx=Population (
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■ We should encourage earth-susta
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2. Write two-page scenarios describ
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A continent ages quickly once we co
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Good NewsMore foodSupported alarger
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Figure 2-8 Theodore (“Teddy”)Ro
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What Happened during the 1970s? The
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on which they and their ancestors h
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Science is an adventure of the huma
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CTIONSWhat Is Harmingthe Robins?Sup
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After building and testing a mathem
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I am going to give you a brief intr
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Figure 3-6 The pH scale, used to me
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The different molecules of DNA that
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Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2
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aluminum foil. When solid water (ic
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nn23592 UUranium-235nucleus9236Kr14
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SolarenergyChemicalenergy(photosynt
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number of resource users. In other
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The earth’s thin film of living m
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(a) Eukaryotic CellNucleus(informat
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AtmosphereVegetationBiosphereand an
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Coastal chaparraland scrubConiferou
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NoorganismsLower limitof toleranceF
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Detritus feedersDecomposersLong-hor
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First TrophicLevelSecond TrophicLev
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Figure 4-20 Generalized pyramid of
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Terrestrial EcosystemsSwamps and ma
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every handful of topsoil break down
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suited for plant growth. It has a t
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Figure 4-29 Naturalcapital: simplif
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wildlife habitats, alter temperatur
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Page 80 and 81: How Are Human Activities Affecting
Page 82 and 83: For example, people visit degraded
Page 84 and 85: There is grandeur to this view of l
Page 86 and 87: According to the theory of evolutio
Page 88 and 89: Black skimmerseizes small fishat wa
Page 90 and 91: 5-4 SPECIATION, EXTINCTION,AND BIOD
Page 92 and 93: Scientists have also identified per
Page 94 and 95: Identify and extractgene with desir
Page 96 and 97: infrared radiation, as a rattlesnak
Page 98 and 99: To do science is to search for repe
Page 100 and 101: figure. Scientists hypothesize that
Page 102 and 103: ArcticCircleTropic ofCancerNorth Pa
Page 104 and 105: Winds can also affect regionalclima
Page 106 and 107: FPO(a) Rays of sunlight penetrateth
Page 108 and 109: ColdPolarTundraSubpolarDecreasing t
Page 110 and 111: Figure 6-20 Natural capital:some co
Page 112 and 113: Beisa oryxCape buffaloWildebeestTop
Page 114 and 115: Figure 6-25 Natural capitaldegradat
Page 116 and 117: Natural Capital DegradationGrasslan
Page 118 and 119: 4540HarpyeagleEmergentlayer35Tocoto
Page 120 and 121: with sunlight available only 6-8 ho
Page 122 and 123: Natural Capital DegradationWhen we
Page 124 and 125: If there is magic on this planet, i
Page 126 and 127: there. Photosynthesis cannot take p
Page 130 and 131: Rocky Shore BeachSea starHermit cra
Page 132 and 133: Figure 7-12 Natural capital:some co
Page 134 and 135: EcologicalServicesClimatemoderation
Page 136 and 137: In warm months the bottom layer of
Page 138 and 139: According to scientists, we urgentl
Page 140 and 141: Animal and vegetable life is too co
Page 142 and 143: HighHighHighRate of immigrationor e
Page 144 and 145: mostly on land and eat insects that
Page 146 and 147: According to this hypothesis, musse
Page 148 and 149: Many people—influenced by movies
Page 150 and 151: strychnine, peyote, nicotine, and r
Page 152 and 153: It is tempting to think of mutualis
Page 155 and 156: How Do Species Replace One Another
Page 157 and 158: By contrast, grasslands are much le
Page 159 and 160: 9Population EcologyPopulationContro
Page 161 and 162: The size of a population that inclu
Page 163 and 164: Number of reindeer2,0001,5001,00050
Page 165 and 166: Reproductive individuals in populat
Page 167 and 168: Percentage surviving (log scale)100
Page 169 and 170: A third type of alteration is using
Page 171 and 172: In the next chapter we will apply t
Page 173 and 174: The problems to be faced are vast a
Page 175 and 176: ates affect a country’s populatio
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and a high incidence of infectious
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Age100+95-9990-9485-8980-8475-7970-
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Age Distribution (%)403530252015105
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80Stage 1PreindustrialStage 2Transi
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also make up 70% of the world’s p
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Such experience also suggests that
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Forests precede civilizations, dese
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The Species ApproachGoalProtect spe
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parkways, trails, rivers, seashores
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Weak treesremovedFigure 11-8 Short
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AdvantagesHigher timberyieldsMaximu
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trees no faster than they are reple
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Sudden oak death White pine blister
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vere forest fires for two reasons.
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and degradation practices, Brazil
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SolutionsSustaining Tropical Forest
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• Integrate plans for managing pa
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Should Reserves Be as Large as Poss
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Figure 11-24 Endangered natural cap
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ity of ecosystems well enough to re
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original state? How much of it shou
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The last word in ignorance is the p
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Florida manatee Northern spotted ow
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each of these three species estimat
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BiophiliaBiologist EdwardO. Wilson
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Island species, many of them endemi
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Deliberately Introduced SpeciesPurp
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The Termite from HellForget killer
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© Karl Ammann. Biosynergy Institut
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tional Trade in Endangered Species
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Most people would say yes. The prob
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the act allows for economic concern
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ity, with the aim of reintroducing
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The Department of Defense controls
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13 SustainingAquatic BiodiversityBi
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CobiaHogfishKelpCarrageenPacific sa
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peated scraping. Slow-growing, long
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control approach and to be sure the
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(CITES), the 1979 Global Treaty on
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Beetle car, and some of its arterie
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What Role Can ReconciliationEcology
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eries. When it works, community-bas
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GULF OFMEXICOAgricultural areaTreat
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water withdrawal for irrigation. An
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SolutionsRebuilding Salmon Populati
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14 Foodand Soil ResourcesSoilBiodiv
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Industrialized agricultureShifting
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First green revolution(developed co
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Low-Tech Sustainable Agriculture in
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According to the U.S. Department of
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OvergrazingDeforestationErosionCaus
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(a) Terracing(b) Contour planting a
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2,000400Grain production(millions o
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People who are underfed and underwe
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14-6 INCREASING CROPPRODUCTIONWhat
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sistence farmers in developing coun
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capita meat production more than do
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A more expensive and less widely us
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Spotter airplaneFish farmingin cage
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estuaries. Then the fish are releas
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Currently, organic farming is used
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15 WaterResourcesWaterCASE STUDYWat
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physically connects us to one anoth
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Groundwater normally moves from poi
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and wildlife could trigger “water
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city’s water systems have been ta
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for the dams and reservoirs and has
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has devastated the area’s fishing
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Aquifers provide drinking water for
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WYOMINGCOLORADONEW MEXICOSOUTH DAKO
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Mohamed El-Ashry of the World Resou
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water waste by about 84% while irri
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15-8 TOO MUCH WATERWhat Causes Floo
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gradually. Another way to reduce fl
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16 MineralGeology and NonrenewableR
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AbyssalhillsAbyssalfloorOceanicridg
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usually rides up over the denser oc
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cant (less than 4.0 on the Richter
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ported from their sources by water,
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How Are Buried Mineral DepositsRemo
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16-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSOF USING
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Separationof ore fromgangueMetal or
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Some analysts contend that all we n
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Can We Find Substitutes for ScarceN
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Typical citizens of advanced indust
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Figure 17-5 shows energy consumptio
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Currently, oil has a high net energ
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ArcticOceanCoalPrince WilliamSoundG
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Oil (million barrels per day)120100
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Coal-firedelectricitySynthetic oil
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Burning natural gas emits CO 2 but
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Trade-OffsCoalxHOW WOULD YOU VOTE?
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Small amounts ofradioactive gasesUr
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After more than 50 years of develop
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CoalAmple supplyHigh net energyyiel
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corrode and release their radioacti
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out the entire rail or truck trip i
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manently in 1998. Because of this e
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18 andEnergy EfficiencyRenewable En
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Energy Inputs System Outputs86%8%3%
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source. These systems have an energ
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ABCombustion engine:Small, efficien
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Atlanta’s 13-story Georgia Power
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Net Energy EfficiencySuperinsulated
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Why Are We Still Wasting So Much En
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How Can We Cool Houses Naturally? I
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AdvantagesFairly high netenergyWork
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The DOE calls the Great Plains stat
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AdvantagesLarge potentialsupply in
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surface. Researchers in several cou
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Primary EnergySourcesHydrogenProduc
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Bioenergy power plantsWind farmSmal
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Nuclear energy(fission and fusion)$
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19 andRisk, Toxicology,Human Health
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Number of individuals affectedVerys
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How Can We Estimate the Toxicity of
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dosage. With the threshold dose-res
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HormoneEstrogenlike chemicalAntiand
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19-4 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:DISEASE IN
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A typical virus consists of a shell
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For example, the West Nile virus ha
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eggs4. Parasite invadesblood cells,
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AgentContagiousSymptomsMortality(if
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Cause of DeathAnnual DeathsPoverty/
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■ How should limited funds be spe
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20 AirPollutionAirPopulationPolluti
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layer of rising and falling air cur
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Air Pollution in the Past: The Bad
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tems, most scientists say that it m
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UltrafineParticlesSea salt nucleiFi
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Warmer airInversion layerIncreasing
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4.75.45.14.75.25.35.35.55.95.54.75.
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when the soil pH falls below 5.1. E
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educe or eliminate emissions of SO
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FurnaceSlabSoilClothesdryerRadon-22
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How Many People Die Prematurely fro
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plant expansions, or sell them to o
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Cleaned gasElectrodesCleaned gasDir
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PreventionCover ceiling tilesand li
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21 andClimate ChangeOzone LossClima
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Average surface temperature (°C)Av
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380410Concentration of carbon dioxi
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Table 21-2 Major Characteristics of
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are dying because the permafrost un
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CellCloudsLandOceanAccording to the
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They suggest that this indicates th
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Agriculture• Shifts in food-growi
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ter temperatures in the Sierra Neva
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PreventionCut fossil fueluse (espec
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taxes on carbon emissions or fuel u
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What Can You Do?Reducing CO 2 Emiss
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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluo
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ozone in the stratosphere. From a h
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Abundance (parts per trillion)INDIV
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22 WaterPollutionWaterPollutionCont
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Table 22-2 Common Diseases Transmit
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Because point sources are at specif
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veloped countries. Two causes of th
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Nitrogen compoundsproduced by carsa
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ties of acids, pesticides, and othe
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ern India drink groundwater contami
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100 kilometers (62 miles) of the co
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Dumping industrial waste off U.S. c
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The key to protecting oceans is to
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PrimarySecondaryGritBar screen cham
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where bacteria break down remaining
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Officials are working to find ways
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but
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A weed is a plant whose virtues hav
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veloped countries, but use in devel
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U.S. Department of Agricultureresis
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What Goes Around CanCome AroundU.S.
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our bodies, and we should be concer
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U.S. Department of AgricultureAgric
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and opposition from agricultural ch
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Solid wastes are only raw materials
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24-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTEWhat Are O
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PharmaceuticalplantSludgeLocal farm
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matter and energy resources, cuts p
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Reduces globalwarmingReduces acidde
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xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should househo
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Disposalwaste, pollutionUsebleach,d
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What Are the Advantages and Disadva
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What Harmful Chemicals Are in Your
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icals. Scientists are testing the u
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Most hazardous waste in the United
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PreventionPhase out leadedgasoline
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EPA advised women who may become pr
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When they can be found, responsible
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out use of these chemicals and to d
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25 SustainableCitiesBiodiversityEne
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Karachi10.4 million16.2 millionDhak
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Image provided courtesy of theU.S.
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InputsOutputsEnergyFoodWaterRawmate
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Despite joblessness, squalor, overc
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day—and injure another 15 million
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T rade-OffsMass Transit RailT rade-
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area (Figure 25-7) between 1862 and
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MajorhighwaysGreenbeltUrban centerS
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powered motorcycles by 2007, and is
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26 andEconomics, Environment,Sustai
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price matches what buyers are willi
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SunEARTHFigure 26-4 Ecological econ
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CostHighLowOptimum pollutionclean-u
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onment, their flow rates through th
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cluding costs, as much as possible,
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• Decreases depletion and degrada
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Should We Rely More on Tradable Pol
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Figure 26-14 Data on the global dis
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Microloans to the PoorMost of thewo
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Sunset BusinessesCoal miningOil pro
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27 andPolitics, Environment,Sustain
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ness, and environmental leaders and
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Leaders are persons whom other peop
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issue as the key to making governme
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LobbyistsLobbyistsLawmaking bodyPub
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19691970197119721973197419751976197
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noise to certain levels or to elimi
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The spearhead of the global conserv
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Such audits have resulted in numero
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natural capital. According to envir
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Speth and several other national an
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■ Open all discussions and findin
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7. Explain why you agree or disagre
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The main ingredients of an environm
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global economy with minimal governm
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What Is the Environmental WisdomWor
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onmental education. They cite some
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What Are Our Basic Needs?Obviously,
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new relationship with the earth tha
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APPENDIX 1UNITS OF MEASURELENGTHMet
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1930s 1940s 1950s1938 Federal Food,
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1970s1971Biologist BarryCommonerpub
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1991-2000Continuing efforts by anti
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OHcommon covalent compounds, formed
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A PPENDIX 4CLASSIFYING AND NAMING S
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GLOSSARYabiotic Nonliving. Compare
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CFCsSee chlorofluorocarbons.chain r
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timeters (10 inches) a year. Such a
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eutrophication Physical, chemical,
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high-throughput economy The situati
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distribution facilities. Compare hu
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and with atoms of one or more other
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adioactive decay Change of a radioi
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soil permeability Rate at which wat
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transmissible disease A disease tha
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