Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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Coastal chaparraland scrubConiferousforestDesertConiferousforestPrairiegrasslandDeciduousforestCoastalmountainrangesSierraNevadaMountainsGreatAmericanDesertRockyMountainsGreatPlainsMississippiRiver ValleyAppalachianMountains15,000 ft.10,000 ft.5,000 ft.Average annual precipitation100–125 cm (40–50 in.)75–100 cm (30–40 in.)50–75 cm (20–30 in.)25–50 cm (10–20 in.)below 25 cm (0–10 in.)Figure 4-10 Natural capital: major biomes found along the 39th parallel across the United States. Thedifferences reflect changes in climate, mainly differences in average annual precipitation and temperature (notshown).others thrive better in shade. Some need a hot environmentand others a cool or cold one. Some do best underwet conditions and others under dry conditions.Each population in an ecosystem has a range oftolerance to variations in its physical and chemicalenvironment (Figure 4-13, p. 64). Individuals within apopulation may also have slightly different toleranceranges for temperature or other factors because ofsmall differences in genetic makeup, health, and age.For example, a trout population may do best within anarrow band of temperatures (optimum level or range),but a few individuals can survive above and belowthat band (Figure 4-13). However, if the water becomestoo hot or too cold, none of the trout can survive.These observations are summarized in the law oftolerance: The existence, abundance, and distribution of aspecies in an ecosystem are determined by whether the levelsof one or more physical or chemical factors fall within therange tolerated by that species. A species may have a widerange of tolerance to some factors and a narrow rangeof tolerance to others. Most organisms are least tolerantduring juvenile or reproductive stages of their lifecycles. Highly tolerant species can live in a variety ofhabitats with widely different conditions. Figure 4-14(p. 64) shows how environmental physical conditionscan limit the distribution of a particular species.What Factors Limit Population Growth?There Are Always Limits in NatureAvailability of matter and energy resourcescan limit the number of organisms in apopulation.Avariety of factors can affect the number of organismsin a population. However, sometimes one factor, knownas a limiting factor, is more important in regulatingpopulation growth than other factors. This ecologicalprinciple, related to the law of tolerance, is called thelimiting factor principle: Too much or too little of any abioticfactor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even ifall other factors are at or near the optimum range of tolerance.On land, precipitation often is the limiting factor.Lack of water in a desert limits plant growth. Soil nutrientsalso can act as a limiting factor on land. Supposea farmer plants corn in phosphorus-poor soil.Even if water, nitrogen, potassium, and other nutrientsare at optimum levels, the corn will stop growingwhen it uses up the available phosphorus.62 CHAPTER 4 Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work?
SunProducers (rooted plants)Producers (phytoplankton)Primary consumers (zooplankton)Secondary consumer (fish)DissolvedchemicalsTertiary consumer(turtle)SedimentDecomposers (bacteria and fungi)Figure 4-11 Major components of a freshwater ecosystem.Oxygen (O 2 )SunProducerCarbon dioxide (CO 2 )Primary consumer(rabbit)Secondary consumer(fox)PrecipitationFalling leavesand twigsProducersSoil decomposersWaterSoluble mineral nutrientsFigure 4-12 Major components of an ecosystem in a field.http://biology.brookscole.com/miller1463
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1Environmental Problems, TheirCause
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AirSOLAR ENERGYRESOURCESWaterEnergy
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changes that lead to an increasingl
Page 7 and 8: take the resources of 1.15 planet e
Page 9 and 10: Causes of Environmental Problems•
Page 11 and 12: Developing Countriesxx=Population (
Page 13 and 14: ■ We should encourage earth-susta
Page 15 and 16: 2. Write two-page scenarios describ
Page 17 and 18: A continent ages quickly once we co
Page 19 and 20: Good NewsMore foodSupported alarger
Page 22 and 23: Figure 2-8 Theodore (“Teddy”)Ro
Page 24: What Happened during the 1970s? The
Page 27 and 28: on which they and their ancestors h
Page 29 and 30: Science is an adventure of the huma
Page 31 and 32: CTIONSWhat Is Harmingthe Robins?Sup
Page 33 and 34: After building and testing a mathem
Page 35 and 36: I am going to give you a brief intr
Page 37 and 38: Figure 3-6 The pH scale, used to me
Page 39 and 40: The different molecules of DNA that
Page 41 and 42: Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2
Page 43: aluminum foil. When solid water (ic
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Page 48 and 49: SolarenergyChemicalenergy(photosynt
Page 50 and 51: number of resource users. In other
Page 52 and 53: The earth’s thin film of living m
Page 54 and 55: (a) Eukaryotic CellNucleus(informat
Page 56 and 57: AtmosphereVegetationBiosphereand an
Page 60 and 61: NoorganismsLower limitof toleranceF
Page 62 and 63: Detritus feedersDecomposersLong-hor
Page 64 and 65: First TrophicLevelSecond TrophicLev
Page 66 and 67: Figure 4-20 Generalized pyramid of
Page 68 and 69: Terrestrial EcosystemsSwamps and ma
Page 70 and 71: every handful of topsoil break down
Page 72 and 73: suited for plant growth. It has a t
Page 74 and 75: Figure 4-29 Naturalcapital: simplif
Page 76 and 77: wildlife habitats, alter temperatur
Page 78 and 79: miningFertilizerexcretionuptake bya
Page 80 and 81: How Are Human Activities Affecting
Page 82 and 83: For example, people visit degraded
Page 84 and 85: There is grandeur to this view of l
Page 86 and 87: According to the theory of evolutio
Page 88 and 89: Black skimmerseizes small fishat wa
Page 90 and 91: 5-4 SPECIATION, EXTINCTION,AND BIOD
Page 92 and 93: Scientists have also identified per
Page 94 and 95: Identify and extractgene with desir
Page 96 and 97: infrared radiation, as a rattlesnak
Page 98 and 99: To do science is to search for repe
Page 100 and 101: figure. Scientists hypothesize that
Page 102 and 103: ArcticCircleTropic ofCancerNorth Pa
Page 104 and 105: Winds can also affect regionalclima
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ColdPolarTundraSubpolarDecreasing t
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Figure 6-20 Natural capital:some co
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Beisa oryxCape buffaloWildebeestTop
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Figure 6-25 Natural capitaldegradat
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Natural Capital DegradationGrasslan
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4540HarpyeagleEmergentlayer35Tocoto
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with sunlight available only 6-8 ho
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Natural Capital DegradationWhen we
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If there is magic on this planet, i
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there. Photosynthesis cannot take p
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Figure 7-7 View of an estuary taken
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Rocky Shore BeachSea starHermit cra
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Figure 7-12 Natural capital:some co
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EcologicalServicesClimatemoderation
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In warm months the bottom layer of
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According to scientists, we urgentl
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Animal and vegetable life is too co
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HighHighHighRate of immigrationor e
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mostly on land and eat insects that
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According to this hypothesis, musse
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Many people—influenced by movies
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strychnine, peyote, nicotine, and r
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It is tempting to think of mutualis
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How Do Species Replace One Another
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By contrast, grasslands are much le
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9Population EcologyPopulationContro
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The size of a population that inclu
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Number of reindeer2,0001,5001,00050
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Reproductive individuals in populat
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Percentage surviving (log scale)100
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A third type of alteration is using
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In the next chapter we will apply t
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The problems to be faced are vast a
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ates affect a country’s populatio
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United States Mexico CanadaPopulati
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and a high incidence of infectious
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Age100+95-9990-9485-8980-8475-7970-
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Age Distribution (%)403530252015105
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80Stage 1PreindustrialStage 2Transi
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also make up 70% of the world’s p
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Such experience also suggests that
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Forests precede civilizations, dese
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The Species ApproachGoalProtect spe
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parkways, trails, rivers, seashores
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Weak treesremovedFigure 11-8 Short
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AdvantagesHigher timberyieldsMaximu
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trees no faster than they are reple
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Sudden oak death White pine blister
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vere forest fires for two reasons.
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and degradation practices, Brazil
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SolutionsSustaining Tropical Forest
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• Integrate plans for managing pa
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Should Reserves Be as Large as Poss
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Figure 11-24 Endangered natural cap
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ity of ecosystems well enough to re
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original state? How much of it shou
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The last word in ignorance is the p
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Florida manatee Northern spotted ow
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each of these three species estimat
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BiophiliaBiologist EdwardO. Wilson
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Island species, many of them endemi
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Deliberately Introduced SpeciesPurp
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The Termite from HellForget killer
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© Karl Ammann. Biosynergy Institut
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tional Trade in Endangered Species
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Most people would say yes. The prob
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the act allows for economic concern
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ity, with the aim of reintroducing
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The Department of Defense controls
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13 SustainingAquatic BiodiversityBi
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CobiaHogfishKelpCarrageenPacific sa
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peated scraping. Slow-growing, long
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control approach and to be sure the
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(CITES), the 1979 Global Treaty on
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Beetle car, and some of its arterie
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What Role Can ReconciliationEcology
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eries. When it works, community-bas
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GULF OFMEXICOAgricultural areaTreat
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water withdrawal for irrigation. An
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SolutionsRebuilding Salmon Populati
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14 Foodand Soil ResourcesSoilBiodiv
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Industrialized agricultureShifting
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First green revolution(developed co
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Low-Tech Sustainable Agriculture in
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According to the U.S. Department of
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OvergrazingDeforestationErosionCaus
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(a) Terracing(b) Contour planting a
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2,000400Grain production(millions o
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People who are underfed and underwe
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14-6 INCREASING CROPPRODUCTIONWhat
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sistence farmers in developing coun
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capita meat production more than do
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A more expensive and less widely us
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Spotter airplaneFish farmingin cage
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estuaries. Then the fish are releas
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Currently, organic farming is used
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15 WaterResourcesWaterCASE STUDYWat
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physically connects us to one anoth
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Groundwater normally moves from poi
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and wildlife could trigger “water
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city’s water systems have been ta
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for the dams and reservoirs and has
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has devastated the area’s fishing
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Aquifers provide drinking water for
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WYOMINGCOLORADONEW MEXICOSOUTH DAKO
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Mohamed El-Ashry of the World Resou
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water waste by about 84% while irri
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15-8 TOO MUCH WATERWhat Causes Floo
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gradually. Another way to reduce fl
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16 MineralGeology and NonrenewableR
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AbyssalhillsAbyssalfloorOceanicridg
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usually rides up over the denser oc
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cant (less than 4.0 on the Richter
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ported from their sources by water,
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How Are Buried Mineral DepositsRemo
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16-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSOF USING
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Separationof ore fromgangueMetal or
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Some analysts contend that all we n
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Can We Find Substitutes for ScarceN
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Typical citizens of advanced indust
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Figure 17-5 shows energy consumptio
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Currently, oil has a high net energ
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ArcticOceanCoalPrince WilliamSoundG
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Oil (million barrels per day)120100
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Coal-firedelectricitySynthetic oil
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Burning natural gas emits CO 2 but
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Trade-OffsCoalxHOW WOULD YOU VOTE?
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Small amounts ofradioactive gasesUr
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After more than 50 years of develop
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CoalAmple supplyHigh net energyyiel
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corrode and release their radioacti
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out the entire rail or truck trip i
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manently in 1998. Because of this e
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18 andEnergy EfficiencyRenewable En
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Energy Inputs System Outputs86%8%3%
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source. These systems have an energ
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ABCombustion engine:Small, efficien
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Atlanta’s 13-story Georgia Power
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Net Energy EfficiencySuperinsulated
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Why Are We Still Wasting So Much En
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How Can We Cool Houses Naturally? I
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AdvantagesFairly high netenergyWork
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The DOE calls the Great Plains stat
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AdvantagesLarge potentialsupply in
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surface. Researchers in several cou
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Primary EnergySourcesHydrogenProduc
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Bioenergy power plantsWind farmSmal
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Nuclear energy(fission and fusion)$
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19 andRisk, Toxicology,Human Health
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Number of individuals affectedVerys
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How Can We Estimate the Toxicity of
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dosage. With the threshold dose-res
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HormoneEstrogenlike chemicalAntiand
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19-4 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:DISEASE IN
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A typical virus consists of a shell
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For example, the West Nile virus ha
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eggs4. Parasite invadesblood cells,
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AgentContagiousSymptomsMortality(if
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Cause of DeathAnnual DeathsPoverty/
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■ How should limited funds be spe
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20 AirPollutionAirPopulationPolluti
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layer of rising and falling air cur
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Air Pollution in the Past: The Bad
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tems, most scientists say that it m
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UltrafineParticlesSea salt nucleiFi
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Warmer airInversion layerIncreasing
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4.75.45.14.75.25.35.35.55.95.54.75.
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when the soil pH falls below 5.1. E
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educe or eliminate emissions of SO
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FurnaceSlabSoilClothesdryerRadon-22
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How Many People Die Prematurely fro
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plant expansions, or sell them to o
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Cleaned gasElectrodesCleaned gasDir
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PreventionCover ceiling tilesand li
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21 andClimate ChangeOzone LossClima
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Average surface temperature (°C)Av
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380410Concentration of carbon dioxi
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Table 21-2 Major Characteristics of
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are dying because the permafrost un
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CellCloudsLandOceanAccording to the
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They suggest that this indicates th
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Agriculture• Shifts in food-growi
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ter temperatures in the Sierra Neva
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PreventionCut fossil fueluse (espec
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taxes on carbon emissions or fuel u
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What Can You Do?Reducing CO 2 Emiss
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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluo
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ozone in the stratosphere. From a h
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Abundance (parts per trillion)INDIV
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22 WaterPollutionWaterPollutionCont
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Table 22-2 Common Diseases Transmit
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Because point sources are at specif
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veloped countries. Two causes of th
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Nitrogen compoundsproduced by carsa
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ties of acids, pesticides, and othe
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ern India drink groundwater contami
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100 kilometers (62 miles) of the co
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Dumping industrial waste off U.S. c
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The key to protecting oceans is to
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PrimarySecondaryGritBar screen cham
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where bacteria break down remaining
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Officials are working to find ways
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but
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A weed is a plant whose virtues hav
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veloped countries, but use in devel
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U.S. Department of Agricultureresis
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What Goes Around CanCome AroundU.S.
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our bodies, and we should be concer
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U.S. Department of AgricultureAgric
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and opposition from agricultural ch
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Solid wastes are only raw materials
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24-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTEWhat Are O
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PharmaceuticalplantSludgeLocal farm
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matter and energy resources, cuts p
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Reduces globalwarmingReduces acidde
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xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should househo
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Disposalwaste, pollutionUsebleach,d
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What Are the Advantages and Disadva
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What Harmful Chemicals Are in Your
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icals. Scientists are testing the u
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Most hazardous waste in the United
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PreventionPhase out leadedgasoline
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EPA advised women who may become pr
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When they can be found, responsible
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out use of these chemicals and to d
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25 SustainableCitiesBiodiversityEne
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Karachi10.4 million16.2 millionDhak
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Image provided courtesy of theU.S.
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InputsOutputsEnergyFoodWaterRawmate
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Despite joblessness, squalor, overc
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day—and injure another 15 million
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T rade-OffsMass Transit RailT rade-
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area (Figure 25-7) between 1862 and
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MajorhighwaysGreenbeltUrban centerS
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powered motorcycles by 2007, and is
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26 andEconomics, Environment,Sustai
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price matches what buyers are willi
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SunEARTHFigure 26-4 Ecological econ
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CostHighLowOptimum pollutionclean-u
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onment, their flow rates through th
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cluding costs, as much as possible,
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• Decreases depletion and degrada
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Should We Rely More on Tradable Pol
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Figure 26-14 Data on the global dis
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Microloans to the PoorMost of thewo
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Sunset BusinessesCoal miningOil pro
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27 andPolitics, Environment,Sustain
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ness, and environmental leaders and
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Leaders are persons whom other peop
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issue as the key to making governme
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LobbyistsLobbyistsLawmaking bodyPub
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19691970197119721973197419751976197
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noise to certain levels or to elimi
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The spearhead of the global conserv
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Such audits have resulted in numero
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natural capital. According to envir
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Speth and several other national an
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■ Open all discussions and findin
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7. Explain why you agree or disagre
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The main ingredients of an environm
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global economy with minimal governm
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What Is the Environmental WisdomWor
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onmental education. They cite some
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What Are Our Basic Needs?Obviously,
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new relationship with the earth tha
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APPENDIX 1UNITS OF MEASURELENGTHMet
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1930s 1940s 1950s1938 Federal Food,
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1970s1971Biologist BarryCommonerpub
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1991-2000Continuing efforts by anti
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OHcommon covalent compounds, formed
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A PPENDIX 4CLASSIFYING AND NAMING S
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GLOSSARYabiotic Nonliving. Compare
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CFCsSee chlorofluorocarbons.chain r
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timeters (10 inches) a year. Such a
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eutrophication Physical, chemical,
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high-throughput economy The situati
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distribution facilities. Compare hu
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and with atoms of one or more other
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adioactive decay Change of a radioi
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soil permeability Rate at which wat
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transmissible disease A disease tha
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