Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

cancer from HAPs—mostly formaldehyde, acetaldehyde,benzene, and 1,3 butadiene—is 10 in 1 million orten times the normally accepted standard of 1 deathper 1 million persons.After dropping in the 1980s, smog levels did notdrop between 1993 and 2003 mostly because reducingsmog requires much bigger cuts in emissions of nitrogenoxides from power and industrial plants and motorvehicles. Also, according to the EPA, in 2003 morethan 170 million people lived in 474 of the nation’s2,700 counties in 31 states where air is unhealthy tobreathe during part of the year because of high levelsof air pollutants—primarily ozone and fine particles.However, for most urban areas such conditions existfor only a few days a year.How Can U.S. Air PollutionLaws Be Improved? We Can DoBetterEnvironmentalists applaud the successof U.S. air pollution control laws but havesuggested several ways to make them moreeffective.The reduction of outdoor air pollution in the UnitedStates since 1970 has been a remarkable success story.This occurred because of two factors. First, U.S. citizensinsisted that laws be passed and enforced to improveair quality. Second, the country was affluentenough to afford such controls and improvements.But more can be done. Environmentalists point toseveral deficiencies in the Clean Air Act. One is continuingto rely mostly on pollution cleanup rather than prevention.An example of the power of prevention is that inthe United States, the air pollutant with the largestdrop (98% between 1970 and 2002) in its atmosphericlevel was lead, which was largely banned in gasoline.This is viewed as one of the greatest pollution successstories in the country’s history.Second is the failure of Congress to increase fuelefficiencystandards for cars, sport utility vehicles (SUVs),and light trucks. According to environmental scientists,increased fuel efficiency would reduce air pollutionfrom motor vehicles more quickly and effectively thanany other method, reduce CO 2 emissions, save energy,and save consumers enormous amounts of money.Third, there has also been inadequate regulation ofemissions from inefficient two-cycle gasoline engines.These engines are used in lawn mowers, leaf blowers,chain saws, jet skis, outboard motors, and snowmobiles.According to the California Air Resources Board,a 1-hour ride on a typical jet ski creates more air pollutionthan the average U.S. car does in a year, and operatinga 100-horsepower boat engine for 7 hours emitsmore air pollutants than a new car driven 160,000 kilometers(100,000 miles).In 2001, the EPA announced plans to reduce emissionsfrom most of these sources by 2007. But manufacturerspush for extending these deadlines.Fourth, there is little or no regulation of air pollutionfrom oceangoing ships in American ports. According tothe Earth Justice Legal Defense Fund, a single shipemits more air pollution than 2,000 diesel trucks.Fifth, the Clean Air Acts have failed to do much aboutreducing emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhousegases. Also, the laws have failed to deal seriously with indoorair pollution even though it is by far the most seriousair pollution problem in terms of poorer health,premature death, and economic losses from lost worktime and increased health costs.Sixth, finally, there is a need for better enforcementof the Clean Air Acts. According to a 2002 governmentstudy, doing this would save about 6,000 lives and prevent140,000 asthma attacks each year in the UnitedStates.Executives of companies affected by implementingsuch policies claim that correcting these deficienciesin the country’s Clean Air Act would cost toomuch, harm economic growth, and cost jobs. Proponentscontend that history has shown that mostindustry cost estimates of implementing various airpollution control standards in the United States weremany times the actual cost. In addition, implementingsuch standards has helped increase economic growthand create jobs by stimulating companies to developnew technologies for reducing air pollution emissions.Many of these technologies are sold in the internationalmarketplace.xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should the U.S. Clean Air Actbe strengthened? Cast your vote online at http://biology.brookscole.com/miller14.Case Study: Should We Use the Marketplaceto Reduce Pollution? Emissions TradingAllowing producers of air pollutants to buyand sell government air pollution allotmentsin the marketplace can help reduce emissions.To help reduce SO 2 emissions, the Clean Air Act of 1990allows an emissions trading policy, which enables the 110most polluting power plants in 21 states (primarily inthe Midwest and East, red dots in Figure 20-9) to buyand sell SO 2 pollution rights.This process begins with each of the coal-burningplants measuring the sulfur dioxide emitted from theirsmokestacks. Each year, a coal-burning power plant isgiven a certain number of pollution credits, or rights toemit a certain amount of SO 2 . A utility that emits lessSO 2 than its limit has a surplus of pollution credits. Itcan use these credits to avoid reductions in SO 2 emissionsat another of its plants, keep them for future454 CHAPTER 20 Air Pollution