Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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EcologicalServicesCroplands• Help maintain water flow andsoil infiltration•Provide partial erosionprotection• Can build soil organic matter• Store atmospheric carbon•Provide wildlife habitat forsome speciesNatural CapitalEconomicServices• Food crops• Fiber crops•Crop geneticresources• JobsFigure 14-3 Natural capital: ecological and economicservices provided by croplands.largest industry, providing a living for one of everyfive (1.3 billion) people.14-2 PRODUCING FOOD BY GREENREVOLUTION AND TRADITIONALTECHNIQUESHow Have Green Revolutions IncreasedFood Production? High-Input Monoculturesin ActionSince 1950, most of the increase in global foodproduction has come from using high-inputagriculture to produce more crops on each unitof land.Farmers can produce more food by farming more landor getting higher yields per unit of area from existingcropland. Since 1950, most of the increase in globalfood production has come from increased yields perunit of area of cropland in a process called the greenrevolution.The green revolution involves three steps. First,develop and plant monocultures (Figure 6-25, p. 118)of selectively bred or genetically engineered highyieldvarieties of key crops such as rice, wheat, andcorn. Second, produce high yields by using large inputsof fertilizer, pesticides, and water. Third, increase thenumber of crops grown per year on a plot of landthrough multiple cropping.This high-input approach dramatically increasedcrop yields in most developed countries between 1950and 1970 in what is called the first green revolution (Figure14-4, blue areas).A second green revolution has been taking placesince 1967. It involves introducing fast-growing dwarfvarieties of rice (Figure 14-5) and wheat (developed byNorman Bourlag, who later received a Nobel PeacePrize for his work) into several developing countriesin tropical and subtropical climates (Figure 14-4, greenareas). Producing more food on less land is also an importantway to protect biodiversity by saving large areasof forests, grasslands, wetlands, and easily erodedmountain terrain from being used to grow food.Yield increases depend not only on fertile soil andample water but also on high inputs of fossil fuels torun machinery, produce and apply inorganic fertilizersand pesticides, and pump water for irrigation. All told,high-input green revolution agriculture uses about 8%of the world’s oil output.Case Study: Industrial Food Productionin the United States: A Success StoryAmerica’s industrialized agricultural systemproduces about 17% of the world’s grain but hasa larger environmental impact than any otherAmerican industry.In the United States industrialized farming has becomeagribusiness as big companies and larger family-ownedfarms have taken control of almost three-fourths of U.S.food production. According to environmental educatorDavid Orr, “the U.S. food system is increasingly dominatedby ‘superfarms’, which are roughly to farmingwhat WalMart is to retailing.”In total annual sales, agriculture is bigger than theautomotive, steel, and housing industries combined. Itgenerates about 18% of the country’s gross national incomeand almost a fifth of all jobs in the private sector,employing more people than any other industry. Withonly 0.3% of the world’s farm labor force, U.S. farmsproduce about 17% of the world’s grain and nearlyhalf of the world’s corn and soybean exports.Since 1950, U.S. farmers have used green revolutiontechniques to more than double the yield of keycrops such as wheat, corn, and soybeans without cultivatingmore land. Such increases in the yield perhectare of key crops have kept large areas of forests,grasslands, wetlands, and easily erodible land frombeing converted to farmland.In addition, the country’s agricultural system hasbecome increasingly efficient. While the U.S. output ofcrops, meat, and dairy products has been increasingsteadily since 1975, the major inputs of labor and resources—withthe exception of pesticides—to produceeach unit of that output have fallen steadily since 1950.U.S. consumers now spend only about 2% of theirincome on domestically produced food, compared toabout 11% in 1948. Adjusted for inflation, U.S. farmproducts now cost about one-third of what they did in276 CHAPTER 14 Food and Soil Resources
First green revolution(developed countries)Second green revolution(developing countries)Major international agriculturalresearch centers and seed banksFigure 14-4 Countries whose crop yields per unit of land area increased during the two green revolutions. Thefirst (blue) took place in developed countries between 1950 and 1970; the second (green) has occurred since1967 in developing countries with enough rainfall or irrigation capacity. Several agricultural research centersand gene or seed banks (red dots) play a key role in developing high-yield crop varieties.International Rice Research Institute, ManilaFigure 14-5 Solutions: highyield,semidwarf variety of ricecalled IR-8 (left), developed aspart of the second green revolution.Crossbreeding two parentstrains of rice produced it:PETA from Indonesia (center)and DGWG from China (right).The shorter and stiffer stalksof the new variety allow theplants to support larger headsof grain without toppling overand increase the benefit ofapplying more fertilizer.http://biology.brookscole.com/miller14277
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1Environmental Problems, TheirCause
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AirSOLAR ENERGYRESOURCESWaterEnergy
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changes that lead to an increasingl
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take the resources of 1.15 planet e
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Causes of Environmental Problems•
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Developing Countriesxx=Population (
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■ We should encourage earth-susta
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2. Write two-page scenarios describ
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A continent ages quickly once we co
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Good NewsMore foodSupported alarger
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Figure 2-8 Theodore (“Teddy”)Ro
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What Happened during the 1970s? The
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on which they and their ancestors h
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Science is an adventure of the huma
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CTIONSWhat Is Harmingthe Robins?Sup
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After building and testing a mathem
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I am going to give you a brief intr
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Figure 3-6 The pH scale, used to me
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The different molecules of DNA that
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Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2
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aluminum foil. When solid water (ic
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nn23592 UUranium-235nucleus9236Kr14
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SolarenergyChemicalenergy(photosynt
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number of resource users. In other
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The earth’s thin film of living m
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(a) Eukaryotic CellNucleus(informat
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AtmosphereVegetationBiosphereand an
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Coastal chaparraland scrubConiferou
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NoorganismsLower limitof toleranceF
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Detritus feedersDecomposersLong-hor
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First TrophicLevelSecond TrophicLev
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Figure 4-20 Generalized pyramid of
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Terrestrial EcosystemsSwamps and ma
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every handful of topsoil break down
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suited for plant growth. It has a t
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Figure 4-29 Naturalcapital: simplif
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wildlife habitats, alter temperatur
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miningFertilizerexcretionuptake bya
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How Are Human Activities Affecting
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For example, people visit degraded
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There is grandeur to this view of l
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According to the theory of evolutio
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Black skimmerseizes small fishat wa
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5-4 SPECIATION, EXTINCTION,AND BIOD
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Scientists have also identified per
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Identify and extractgene with desir
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infrared radiation, as a rattlesnak
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To do science is to search for repe
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figure. Scientists hypothesize that
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ArcticCircleTropic ofCancerNorth Pa
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Winds can also affect regionalclima
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FPO(a) Rays of sunlight penetrateth
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ColdPolarTundraSubpolarDecreasing t
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Figure 6-20 Natural capital:some co
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Beisa oryxCape buffaloWildebeestTop
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Figure 6-25 Natural capitaldegradat
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Natural Capital DegradationGrasslan
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4540HarpyeagleEmergentlayer35Tocoto
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with sunlight available only 6-8 ho
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Natural Capital DegradationWhen we
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If there is magic on this planet, i
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there. Photosynthesis cannot take p
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Figure 7-7 View of an estuary taken
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Rocky Shore BeachSea starHermit cra
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Figure 7-12 Natural capital:some co
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EcologicalServicesClimatemoderation
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In warm months the bottom layer of
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According to scientists, we urgentl
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Animal and vegetable life is too co
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HighHighHighRate of immigrationor e
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mostly on land and eat insects that
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According to this hypothesis, musse
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Many people—influenced by movies
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strychnine, peyote, nicotine, and r
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It is tempting to think of mutualis
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How Do Species Replace One Another
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By contrast, grasslands are much le
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9Population EcologyPopulationContro
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The size of a population that inclu
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Number of reindeer2,0001,5001,00050
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Reproductive individuals in populat
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Percentage surviving (log scale)100
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A third type of alteration is using
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In the next chapter we will apply t
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The problems to be faced are vast a
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ates affect a country’s populatio
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United States Mexico CanadaPopulati
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and a high incidence of infectious
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Age100+95-9990-9485-8980-8475-7970-
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Age Distribution (%)403530252015105
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80Stage 1PreindustrialStage 2Transi
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also make up 70% of the world’s p
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Such experience also suggests that
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Forests precede civilizations, dese
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The Species ApproachGoalProtect spe
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parkways, trails, rivers, seashores
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Weak treesremovedFigure 11-8 Short
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AdvantagesHigher timberyieldsMaximu
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trees no faster than they are reple
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Sudden oak death White pine blister
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vere forest fires for two reasons.
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and degradation practices, Brazil
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SolutionsSustaining Tropical Forest
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• Integrate plans for managing pa
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Should Reserves Be as Large as Poss
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Figure 11-24 Endangered natural cap
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ity of ecosystems well enough to re
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original state? How much of it shou
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Page 233 and 234: The Termite from HellForget killer
Page 235 and 236: © Karl Ammann. Biosynergy Institut
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Page 239 and 240: Most people would say yes. The prob
Page 241 and 242: the act allows for economic concern
Page 243 and 244: ity, with the aim of reintroducing
Page 245 and 246: The Department of Defense controls
Page 247 and 248: 13 SustainingAquatic BiodiversityBi
Page 249 and 250: CobiaHogfishKelpCarrageenPacific sa
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Page 253 and 254: control approach and to be sure the
Page 255 and 256: (CITES), the 1979 Global Treaty on
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Page 259 and 260: What Role Can ReconciliationEcology
Page 261 and 262: eries. When it works, community-bas
Page 263 and 264: GULF OFMEXICOAgricultural areaTreat
Page 265 and 266: water withdrawal for irrigation. An
Page 267 and 268: SolutionsRebuilding Salmon Populati
Page 269 and 270: 14 Foodand Soil ResourcesSoilBiodiv
Page 271: Industrialized agricultureShifting
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Page 277 and 278: According to the U.S. Department of
Page 279 and 280: OvergrazingDeforestationErosionCaus
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Page 293 and 294: A more expensive and less widely us
Page 295 and 296: Spotter airplaneFish farmingin cage
Page 297 and 298: estuaries. Then the fish are releas
Page 299 and 300: Currently, organic farming is used
Page 301 and 302: 15 WaterResourcesWaterCASE STUDYWat
Page 303 and 304: physically connects us to one anoth
Page 305 and 306: Groundwater normally moves from poi
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Page 315 and 316: Aquifers provide drinking water for
Page 317 and 318: WYOMINGCOLORADONEW MEXICOSOUTH DAKO
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15-8 TOO MUCH WATERWhat Causes Floo
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gradually. Another way to reduce fl
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16 MineralGeology and NonrenewableR
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AbyssalhillsAbyssalfloorOceanicridg
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usually rides up over the denser oc
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cant (less than 4.0 on the Richter
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ported from their sources by water,
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How Are Buried Mineral DepositsRemo
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16-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSOF USING
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Separationof ore fromgangueMetal or
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Some analysts contend that all we n
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Can We Find Substitutes for ScarceN
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Typical citizens of advanced indust
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Figure 17-5 shows energy consumptio
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Currently, oil has a high net energ
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ArcticOceanCoalPrince WilliamSoundG
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Oil (million barrels per day)120100
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Coal-firedelectricitySynthetic oil
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Burning natural gas emits CO 2 but
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Trade-OffsCoalxHOW WOULD YOU VOTE?
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Small amounts ofradioactive gasesUr
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After more than 50 years of develop
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CoalAmple supplyHigh net energyyiel
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corrode and release their radioacti
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out the entire rail or truck trip i
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manently in 1998. Because of this e
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18 andEnergy EfficiencyRenewable En
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Energy Inputs System Outputs86%8%3%
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source. These systems have an energ
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ABCombustion engine:Small, efficien
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Atlanta’s 13-story Georgia Power
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Net Energy EfficiencySuperinsulated
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Why Are We Still Wasting So Much En
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How Can We Cool Houses Naturally? I
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AdvantagesFairly high netenergyWork
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The DOE calls the Great Plains stat
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AdvantagesLarge potentialsupply in
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surface. Researchers in several cou
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Primary EnergySourcesHydrogenProduc
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Bioenergy power plantsWind farmSmal
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Nuclear energy(fission and fusion)$
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19 andRisk, Toxicology,Human Health
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Number of individuals affectedVerys
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How Can We Estimate the Toxicity of
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dosage. With the threshold dose-res
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HormoneEstrogenlike chemicalAntiand
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19-4 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:DISEASE IN
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A typical virus consists of a shell
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For example, the West Nile virus ha
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eggs4. Parasite invadesblood cells,
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AgentContagiousSymptomsMortality(if
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Cause of DeathAnnual DeathsPoverty/
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■ How should limited funds be spe
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20 AirPollutionAirPopulationPolluti
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layer of rising and falling air cur
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Air Pollution in the Past: The Bad
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tems, most scientists say that it m
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UltrafineParticlesSea salt nucleiFi
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Warmer airInversion layerIncreasing
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4.75.45.14.75.25.35.35.55.95.54.75.
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when the soil pH falls below 5.1. E
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educe or eliminate emissions of SO
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FurnaceSlabSoilClothesdryerRadon-22
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How Many People Die Prematurely fro
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plant expansions, or sell them to o
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Cleaned gasElectrodesCleaned gasDir
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PreventionCover ceiling tilesand li
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21 andClimate ChangeOzone LossClima
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Average surface temperature (°C)Av
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380410Concentration of carbon dioxi
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Table 21-2 Major Characteristics of
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are dying because the permafrost un
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CellCloudsLandOceanAccording to the
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They suggest that this indicates th
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Agriculture• Shifts in food-growi
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ter temperatures in the Sierra Neva
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PreventionCut fossil fueluse (espec
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taxes on carbon emissions or fuel u
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What Can You Do?Reducing CO 2 Emiss
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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluo
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ozone in the stratosphere. From a h
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Abundance (parts per trillion)INDIV
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22 WaterPollutionWaterPollutionCont
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Table 22-2 Common Diseases Transmit
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Because point sources are at specif
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veloped countries. Two causes of th
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Nitrogen compoundsproduced by carsa
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ties of acids, pesticides, and othe
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ern India drink groundwater contami
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100 kilometers (62 miles) of the co
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Dumping industrial waste off U.S. c
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The key to protecting oceans is to
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PrimarySecondaryGritBar screen cham
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where bacteria break down remaining
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Officials are working to find ways
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but
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A weed is a plant whose virtues hav
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veloped countries, but use in devel
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U.S. Department of Agricultureresis
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What Goes Around CanCome AroundU.S.
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our bodies, and we should be concer
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U.S. Department of AgricultureAgric
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and opposition from agricultural ch
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Solid wastes are only raw materials
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24-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTEWhat Are O
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PharmaceuticalplantSludgeLocal farm
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matter and energy resources, cuts p
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Reduces globalwarmingReduces acidde
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xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should househo
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Disposalwaste, pollutionUsebleach,d
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What Are the Advantages and Disadva
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What Harmful Chemicals Are in Your
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icals. Scientists are testing the u
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Most hazardous waste in the United
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PreventionPhase out leadedgasoline
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EPA advised women who may become pr
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When they can be found, responsible
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out use of these chemicals and to d
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25 SustainableCitiesBiodiversityEne
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Karachi10.4 million16.2 millionDhak
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Image provided courtesy of theU.S.
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InputsOutputsEnergyFoodWaterRawmate
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Despite joblessness, squalor, overc
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day—and injure another 15 million
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T rade-OffsMass Transit RailT rade-
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area (Figure 25-7) between 1862 and
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MajorhighwaysGreenbeltUrban centerS
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powered motorcycles by 2007, and is
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26 andEconomics, Environment,Sustai
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price matches what buyers are willi
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SunEARTHFigure 26-4 Ecological econ
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CostHighLowOptimum pollutionclean-u
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onment, their flow rates through th
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cluding costs, as much as possible,
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• Decreases depletion and degrada
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Should We Rely More on Tradable Pol
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Figure 26-14 Data on the global dis
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Microloans to the PoorMost of thewo
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Sunset BusinessesCoal miningOil pro
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27 andPolitics, Environment,Sustain
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ness, and environmental leaders and
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Leaders are persons whom other peop
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issue as the key to making governme
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LobbyistsLobbyistsLawmaking bodyPub
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19691970197119721973197419751976197
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noise to certain levels or to elimi
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The spearhead of the global conserv
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Such audits have resulted in numero
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natural capital. According to envir
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Speth and several other national an
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■ Open all discussions and findin
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7. Explain why you agree or disagre
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The main ingredients of an environm
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global economy with minimal governm
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What Is the Environmental WisdomWor
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onmental education. They cite some
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What Are Our Basic Needs?Obviously,
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new relationship with the earth tha
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APPENDIX 1UNITS OF MEASURELENGTHMet
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1930s 1940s 1950s1938 Federal Food,
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1970s1971Biologist BarryCommonerpub
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1991-2000Continuing efforts by anti
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OHcommon covalent compounds, formed
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A PPENDIX 4CLASSIFYING AND NAMING S
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GLOSSARYabiotic Nonliving. Compare
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CFCsSee chlorofluorocarbons.chain r
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timeters (10 inches) a year. Such a
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eutrophication Physical, chemical,
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high-throughput economy The situati
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distribution facilities. Compare hu
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and with atoms of one or more other
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adioactive decay Change of a radioi
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soil permeability Rate at which wat
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transmissible disease A disease tha
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