Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

More holisticMore atomisticBiosphere- or Earth-centeredEcosystem-centeredBiocentric(life-centered)PlanetarymanagementAnthropocentric(human-centered)Self-centeredInstrumentalvalues playbigger roleIntrinsicvalues playbigger roleStewardshipEnvironmentalwisdomFigure 28-2 Environmental worldviews lie on a continuum running from more self- and human-centered(center) to biosphere- or earth-centered (outer rings). (Diagram developed by Scott Spoolman)are necessarily superficial and incomplete. There aremany complex arguments involved in evaluatingthese and other moral philosophies that you can exploreby studying philosophy.What Is the Difference between Instrumentaland Intrinsic Values? Usefulness versusExistenceLife forms have value because of their usefulnessto us or to the biosphere or merely because theyexist.What we value largely determines how we act. Environmentalphilosophers normally divide values intotwo types. One type, called instrumental or utilitarian,values life-forms because of their usefulness to us or tothe biosphere. The concept of preserving natural capitaland biodiversity because they sustain life and supporteconomies is an instrumental value based mostly on theusefulness of these natural goods and services to us.A second type, called intrinsic or inherent, valuesa form of life just because it exists, regardless ofwhether it has any usefulness to us.As worldviews go from being human-cenetered tomore earth-centered (moving out from the center ofFigure 28-2) instrumental values play a lesser role, andintrinsic values become more important. The view thata wild species, an ecosystem, biodiversity, or the biospherehas value only because of its usefulness to us iscalled an anthropocentric (human-centered) instrumentalvalue.In contrast, the view that these forms of life arevaluable simply because they exist, independently oftheir use to human beings, is called a biocentric (lifecentered)intrinsic value. According to a biocentricworldview, all species and ecosystems and the biospherehave both intrinsic and instrumental value, we are justone of many species, and we have an ethical responsibilitynot to impair the long-term sustainability andadaptability of the earth’s natural systems for all life.What Are the Major Human-CenteredEnvironmental Worldviews? Managers andStewardsIn the human-centered view, we are the planet’smost important species and should become managersor stewards of the earth.Some people in today’s industrial consumer societieshave a planetary management worldview. Accordingto this human-centered environmental worldview, weare the planet’s most important and dominant speciesand we can and should manage the earth mostly forour own benefit. Other species and parts of nature areseen as having only instrumental value based on howuseful they are to us. This is a form of utilitarianism.Figure 28-3 (left) summarizes the four major beliefsor assumptions of this environmental worldview. Hereare three variations of this environmental worldview:■ The no-problem school. We can solve any environmental,population, or resource problems with moreeconomic growth and development, better management,and better technology.■ The free-market school. The best way to managethe planet for human benefit is through a free-market632 CHAPTER 28 Environmental Worldviews, Ethics, and Sustainability