Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

The Real Cost of Gasoline in the United StatesEconomists andenvironmentalistspoint out thatgasoline costs U.S.CONNECTIONS consumers muchmore than it appears.This is because the real costof gasoline is not paid directly atthe pump.According to a 1998 study bythe International Center forTechnology Assessment, thehidden costs of gasoline to U.S.consumers is about $1.30–3.70 perliter ($5–14 per gallon), dependingon how the costs are estimated.These hidden costs include thefollowing:■ Government subsidies and taxbreaks for oil companies and roadbuilders.■Pollution cleanup.■ Military protection of oil suppliesin the Middle East (at least $30billion a year not including the IraqWar).■ Environmental, health, and socialcosts such as increased medical billsand insurance premiums, timewasted in traffic jams, noise pollution,increased mortality from airand water pollution, urban sprawl,and harmful effects on wildlifespecies and habitats.Economists point out that ifthese harmful costs were includedas taxes in the market price of gasoline,we would have much more energy-efficientand less pollutingcars. However, gasoline and carcompanies benefit financially bybeing able to pass these hiddencosts on to consumers and futuregenerations.This is basically an educationand political problem. Most consumersare unaware that they arepaying these harmful costs and donot connect them with gasoline use.Also, politicians running on a platformof raising gasoline prices inthe United States 3–11-fold wouldbe committing political suicide.Critical ThinkingSome economists have suggestedthat U.S. consumers might be willingto pay much more for gasoline if(1) they understood they are alreadypaying these hidden costs indirectlyand (2) the tax revenuesfrom gasoline sales were used to reducetaxes on wages, income, andwealth and provide a safety net forlow- and middle-class consumers.Would you support or oppose sucha proposal? Explain.xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should the government greatlyincrease fuel efficiency standards for all vehicles in the UnitedStates or the country where you live? Cast your vote online athttp://biology.brookscole.com/miller14.Are Hybrid-Electric Vehicles the Answer?A New OptionFuel-efficient hybrid-electric vehicles are poweredby a battery and a small internal combustion enginethat recharges the battery.There is rapidly growing interest in developing superefficientcars that could eventually get 34–128 kpl(80–300 mpg). This concept was pioneered and developedin detail in the 1980s by physicist Amory Lovins.See his Guest Essay on the website for this chapter.One type of energy-efficient car uses a hybrid-electricinternal combustion engine. It runs on gasoline,diesel fuel, or natural gas and uses a small battery(recharged by the internal combustion engine) to providethe energy needed for acceleration and hill climbing(Figure 18-9).Toyota introduced its first hybrid vehicle in 1997and Honda and Nissan have been selling several modelsof hybrid vehicles in the United States since 2000.Carmakers plan to introduce at least 20 hybrid models,including cars, trucks, SUVs, and vans, in the next 4–5years. In 2004 Toyota (Lexus) and Ford (its Escapemodel) began selling hybrid SUVs with the fuel efficiencyof a compact car.Toyota has a strong lead in developing such vehiclesbut in 2003 General Motors announced it wouldhave the manufacturing capability to build as many as1 million hybrid cars, trucks, and SUVs by 2006. Salesof hybrid motor vehicles are projected to grow rapidlyand probably dominate motor vehicle sales between2010 and 2030.Some people buy trucks or SUVs because they believethey are safer than midsize automobiles. Butsafety studies reveal that SUVs and pickups are moredangerous to people in them and to those in vehiclesthey may run into than most midsize and large automobiles.And they are no safer than some models ofcompact cars. The main reason is that SUVs and trucksare taller and heavier than most other vehicles. Thismakes them more likely to roll over and harder to controlin emergency stops.Are Fuel-Cell Cars the Answer? Possible Starof the FutureAutomakers are developing fuel-efficient carspowered by fuel cells running on hydrogen andproducing little pollution.384 CHAPTER 18 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy