Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

The earth’s thin film of living matter is sustained by grandscalecycles of energy and chemical elements.G. EVELYN HUTCHINSONThis chapter addresses the following questions:■■■■■■■■What is ecology?What basic processes keep us and other organismsalive?What are the major components of an ecosystem?What happens to energy in an ecosystem?What are soils, and how are they formed?What happens to matter in an ecosystem?How do scientists study ecosystems?What are two principles of sustainability derivedfrom learning how nature works?Organisms can be classified into species, groupsof organisms that resemble one another in appearance,behavior, chemistry, and genetic makeup. Scientistsuse a special system to name each species. (See Appendix4 to find out how biologists came up with the nameHomo sapiens sapiens for our current species.)Organisms that reproduce sexually by combiningcells from both parents are classified as members of thesame species if, under natural conditions, they canpotentially breed with one another and produce live,fertile offspring.How many species are on the earth? We do notknow. Estimates range from 3.6 million to 100 million,many of them in tropical forests. Most are insects andmicroorganisms too small to be seen with the nakedeye. A best guess is that we share the planet with10–14 million other species.So far biologists have identified, named, and brieflydescribed about 1.4 million species, most of them insects(Figure 4-4, p. 58).4-1 THE NATURE OF ECOLOGYWhat Is Ecology? UnderstandingConnectionsEcology is a study of connections in nature.Ecology (from the Greek words oikos, “house” or “placeto live,” and logos, “study of”) is the study of how organismsinteract with one another and with their nonlivingenvironment. In effect, it is a study of connectionsin nature—the house for the earth’s life. Ecologists focuson trying to understand the interactions among organisms,populations, communities, ecosystems, andthe biosphere (Figure 4-2).An organism is any form of life. The cell is the basicunit of life in organisms. Organisms may consist ofa single cell (bacteria, for instance) or many cells.Look in the mirror. What you see is about 10 trillioncells divided into about 200 different types.On the basis of their cell structure, organisms canbe classified as either eukaryotic or prokaryotic. Each cellof a eukaryotic organism is surrounded by a membraneand has a distinct nucleus (a membraneboundedstructure containing genetic material in theform of DNA), and several other internal parts calledorganelles (Figure 4-3a, p. 58). All organisms exceptbacteria and some algae are eukaryotic.Amembrane surrounds the cell of a prokaryotic organism,but the cell contains no distinct nucleus or otherinternal parts enclosed by membranes (Figure 4-3b). Allbacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms. Mostfamiliar organisms are eukaryotic, but they could notexist without hordes of prokaryotic organisms calledmicrobes that can only be seen only with the aid of amicroscope (see Case Study at right).Case Study: What Species Rule the World?Small Matters!Multitudes of tiny microbes such as bacteria,protozoa, fungi, and yeast help keep us alive.They are everywhere and there are trillions of them.Billions are found inside your body, on your body, in ahandful of soil, and in a cup of river water.These mostly invisible rulers of the earth are microbes,a catchall term for many thousands of species ofbacteria, protozoa, fungi, and yeasts—most too smallto be seen with the naked eye.Microbes do not get the respect they deserve.Most of us think of them as threats to our health in theform of infectious bacteria or “germs,” fungi thatcause athlete’s foot and other skin diseases, andprotozoa that cause diseases such as malaria. But theseharmful microbes are in the minority.You are alive because of multitudes of microbestoiling away, mostly out of sight. You can thank microbesfor providing you with food by convertingnitrogen gas in the atmosphere into forms that plantscan take up from the soil as nutrients that keep youalive and well. Microbes also help produce foods suchas bread, cheese, yogurt, vinegar, tofu, soy sauce, beer,and wine. You should also thank bacteria and fungi inthe soil that decompose organic wastes into nutrientsthat can be taken up by plants that we and most otheranimals eat. Without these wee creatures we would beup to our eyeballs in waste matter.Microbes, especially bacteria, help purify the wateryou drink by breaking down wastes. Bacteria inyour intestinal tract break down the food you eat. Somemicrobes in your nose prevent harmful bacteria fromreaching your lungs. Others are the source of disease-56 CHAPTER 4 Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work?