Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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Births per thousand population323028262422201816End of World War II14Demographictransition Depression Baby boomBaby bustEcho baby boom01910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010YearFigure 10-8 Birth rates in the United States, 1910–2004. (Data from U.S. Bureau of Census and U.S.Commerce Department)country’s population is still growing faster than that ofany other developed country and is not close to levelingoff.About 2.9 million people were added to the U.S.population in 2004. Approximately 59% of this growthwas the result of more births than deaths (1.7 million)and the rest came from legal and illegal immigration(1.2 million).How many people are likely to be living in theUnited States in 2050 and 2100? No one knows, but theU.S. Bureau of Census makes projections using differentassumptions about fertility rates and immigrationrates. Its medium projection is that the U.S. populationwill increase from 294 million in 2004 to 420 million by2050 and reach 571 million by 2100 (Figure 10-9). Incontrast, population growth has slowed in other majordeveloped countries since 1950 and most are expectedto have declining populations after 2010. Because of ahigh per capita rate of resource use, each addition tothe U.S. population has an enormous environmentalimpact (Figure 1-13, p. 15).How do the population dynamics of the UnitedStates compare with those of its neighbors Canada andMexico? Find out by looking at Figure 10-10. In additionto an almost fourfold increase in population growth,Population in millions600500400300200100761900Total population19201940196019802000Year292Projections20202040571206020802100Figure 10-9 U.S. population growth, 1900–2004, and projectionsto 2100. (Data from U.S. Census Bureau)some amazing changes in lifestyles took place in theUnited States during the 20th century (Figure 10-11).What Factors Affect Birth Rates and FertilityRates? Reducing BirthsThe number of children women have is affectedby the cost of raising and educating children,educational and employment opportunities forwomen, infant deaths, marriage age, and availabilityof contraceptives and abortions.Many factors affect a country’s average birth rate andTFR. One is the importance of children as a part of thelabor force. Proportions of children working tend to behigher in developing countries—especially in rural areas,where children begin working to help raise cropsat an early age.Another economic factor is the cost of raising andeducating children. Birth and fertility rates tend to belower in developed countries, where raising childrenis much more costly because they do not enter the laborforce until they are in their late teens or 20s.The availability of private and public pension systemsaffects how many children couples have. Pensionseliminate parents’ need to have many children to helpsupport them in old age.Urbanization plays a role. Why? Because peopleliving in urban areas usually have better access to familyplanning services and tend to have fewer childrenthan those living in rural areas where children areneeded to perform essential tasks.Another important factor is the educational and employmentopportunities available for women. TFRs tend tobe low when women have access to education andpaid employment outside the home. In developingcountries, women with no education generally havetwo more children than women with a secondaryschool education.Another factor is the infant mortality rate. In areaswith low infant mortality rates, people tend to have a180 CHAPTER 10 Applying Population Ecology: The Human Population
United States Mexico CanadaPopulation(2004)32 million106 million294 millionProjected population(2025)36 million150 million349 millionInfant mortality rate6.75.225Life expectancy77 years75 years79 yearsTotal fertilityrate (TFR)2.01.72.8% populationunder age 1521%18%35%% populationover age 65Per capita GDP PPP5%12%13%$8,790$31,892$36,110Figure 10-10 Comparison of basic demographicdata for the United States (red),Mexico (blue), and Canada (yellow) in2004. (Per capita GDP PPP is a measure ofthe average purchasing power per personcompared to that in the United States.)(Data from U.S. Census Bureau and PopulationReference Bureau)Life expectancy47 years77 yearsMarried women workingoutside the home8%81%High schoolgraduates15%83%Homes withflush toilets10%98%Homes withelectricity2%99%Living insuburbs10%52%1900Hourly manufacturing jobwage (adjusted for inflation)Homicides per100,000 people$31.2$155.82000Figure 10-11 Some major changes thattook place in the United States between1900 and 2000. (Data from U.S. Bureauof the Census and Department ofCommerce)http://biology.brookscole.com/miller14181
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1Environmental Problems, TheirCause
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AirSOLAR ENERGYRESOURCESWaterEnergy
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changes that lead to an increasingl
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take the resources of 1.15 planet e
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Causes of Environmental Problems•
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Developing Countriesxx=Population (
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■ We should encourage earth-susta
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2. Write two-page scenarios describ
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A continent ages quickly once we co
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Good NewsMore foodSupported alarger
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Figure 2-8 Theodore (“Teddy”)Ro
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What Happened during the 1970s? The
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on which they and their ancestors h
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Science is an adventure of the huma
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CTIONSWhat Is Harmingthe Robins?Sup
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After building and testing a mathem
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I am going to give you a brief intr
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Figure 3-6 The pH scale, used to me
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The different molecules of DNA that
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Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2
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aluminum foil. When solid water (ic
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nn23592 UUranium-235nucleus9236Kr14
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SolarenergyChemicalenergy(photosynt
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number of resource users. In other
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The earth’s thin film of living m
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(a) Eukaryotic CellNucleus(informat
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AtmosphereVegetationBiosphereand an
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Coastal chaparraland scrubConiferou
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NoorganismsLower limitof toleranceF
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Detritus feedersDecomposersLong-hor
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First TrophicLevelSecond TrophicLev
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Figure 4-20 Generalized pyramid of
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Terrestrial EcosystemsSwamps and ma
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every handful of topsoil break down
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suited for plant growth. It has a t
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Figure 4-29 Naturalcapital: simplif
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wildlife habitats, alter temperatur
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miningFertilizerexcretionuptake bya
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How Are Human Activities Affecting
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For example, people visit degraded
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There is grandeur to this view of l
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According to the theory of evolutio
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Black skimmerseizes small fishat wa
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5-4 SPECIATION, EXTINCTION,AND BIOD
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Scientists have also identified per
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Identify and extractgene with desir
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infrared radiation, as a rattlesnak
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To do science is to search for repe
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figure. Scientists hypothesize that
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ArcticCircleTropic ofCancerNorth Pa
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Winds can also affect regionalclima
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FPO(a) Rays of sunlight penetrateth
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ColdPolarTundraSubpolarDecreasing t
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Figure 6-20 Natural capital:some co
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Beisa oryxCape buffaloWildebeestTop
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Figure 6-25 Natural capitaldegradat
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Natural Capital DegradationGrasslan
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4540HarpyeagleEmergentlayer35Tocoto
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with sunlight available only 6-8 ho
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Natural Capital DegradationWhen we
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If there is magic on this planet, i
Page 126 and 127: there. Photosynthesis cannot take p
Page 128 and 129: Figure 7-7 View of an estuary taken
Page 130 and 131: Rocky Shore BeachSea starHermit cra
Page 132 and 133: Figure 7-12 Natural capital:some co
Page 134 and 135: EcologicalServicesClimatemoderation
Page 136 and 137: In warm months the bottom layer of
Page 138 and 139: According to scientists, we urgentl
Page 140 and 141: Animal and vegetable life is too co
Page 142 and 143: HighHighHighRate of immigrationor e
Page 144 and 145: mostly on land and eat insects that
Page 146 and 147: According to this hypothesis, musse
Page 148 and 149: Many people—influenced by movies
Page 150 and 151: strychnine, peyote, nicotine, and r
Page 152 and 153: It is tempting to think of mutualis
Page 155 and 156: How Do Species Replace One Another
Page 157 and 158: By contrast, grasslands are much le
Page 159 and 160: 9Population EcologyPopulationContro
Page 161 and 162: The size of a population that inclu
Page 163 and 164: Number of reindeer2,0001,5001,00050
Page 165 and 166: Reproductive individuals in populat
Page 167 and 168: Percentage surviving (log scale)100
Page 169 and 170: A third type of alteration is using
Page 171 and 172: In the next chapter we will apply t
Page 173 and 174: The problems to be faced are vast a
Page 175: ates affect a country’s populatio
Page 179 and 180: and a high incidence of infectious
Page 181 and 182: Age100+95-9990-9485-8980-8475-7970-
Page 183 and 184: Age Distribution (%)403530252015105
Page 185 and 186: 80Stage 1PreindustrialStage 2Transi
Page 187 and 188: also make up 70% of the world’s p
Page 189 and 190: Such experience also suggests that
Page 191 and 192: Forests precede civilizations, dese
Page 193 and 194: The Species ApproachGoalProtect spe
Page 195 and 196: parkways, trails, rivers, seashores
Page 197 and 198: Weak treesremovedFigure 11-8 Short
Page 199 and 200: AdvantagesHigher timberyieldsMaximu
Page 201 and 202: trees no faster than they are reple
Page 203 and 204: Sudden oak death White pine blister
Page 205 and 206: vere forest fires for two reasons.
Page 207 and 208: and degradation practices, Brazil
Page 209 and 210: SolutionsSustaining Tropical Forest
Page 211 and 212: • Integrate plans for managing pa
Page 213 and 214: Should Reserves Be as Large as Poss
Page 215 and 216: Figure 11-24 Endangered natural cap
Page 217 and 218: ity of ecosystems well enough to re
Page 219 and 220: original state? How much of it shou
Page 221 and 222: The last word in ignorance is the p
Page 223 and 224: Florida manatee Northern spotted ow
Page 225 and 226: each of these three species estimat
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BiophiliaBiologist EdwardO. Wilson
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Island species, many of them endemi
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Deliberately Introduced SpeciesPurp
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The Termite from HellForget killer
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© Karl Ammann. Biosynergy Institut
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tional Trade in Endangered Species
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Most people would say yes. The prob
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the act allows for economic concern
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ity, with the aim of reintroducing
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The Department of Defense controls
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13 SustainingAquatic BiodiversityBi
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CobiaHogfishKelpCarrageenPacific sa
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peated scraping. Slow-growing, long
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control approach and to be sure the
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(CITES), the 1979 Global Treaty on
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Beetle car, and some of its arterie
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What Role Can ReconciliationEcology
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eries. When it works, community-bas
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GULF OFMEXICOAgricultural areaTreat
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water withdrawal for irrigation. An
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SolutionsRebuilding Salmon Populati
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14 Foodand Soil ResourcesSoilBiodiv
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Industrialized agricultureShifting
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First green revolution(developed co
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Low-Tech Sustainable Agriculture in
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According to the U.S. Department of
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OvergrazingDeforestationErosionCaus
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(a) Terracing(b) Contour planting a
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2,000400Grain production(millions o
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People who are underfed and underwe
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14-6 INCREASING CROPPRODUCTIONWhat
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sistence farmers in developing coun
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capita meat production more than do
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A more expensive and less widely us
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Spotter airplaneFish farmingin cage
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estuaries. Then the fish are releas
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Currently, organic farming is used
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15 WaterResourcesWaterCASE STUDYWat
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physically connects us to one anoth
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Groundwater normally moves from poi
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and wildlife could trigger “water
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city’s water systems have been ta
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for the dams and reservoirs and has
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has devastated the area’s fishing
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Aquifers provide drinking water for
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WYOMINGCOLORADONEW MEXICOSOUTH DAKO
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Mohamed El-Ashry of the World Resou
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water waste by about 84% while irri
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15-8 TOO MUCH WATERWhat Causes Floo
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gradually. Another way to reduce fl
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16 MineralGeology and NonrenewableR
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AbyssalhillsAbyssalfloorOceanicridg
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usually rides up over the denser oc
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cant (less than 4.0 on the Richter
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ported from their sources by water,
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How Are Buried Mineral DepositsRemo
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16-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSOF USING
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Separationof ore fromgangueMetal or
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Some analysts contend that all we n
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Can We Find Substitutes for ScarceN
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Typical citizens of advanced indust
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Figure 17-5 shows energy consumptio
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Currently, oil has a high net energ
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ArcticOceanCoalPrince WilliamSoundG
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Oil (million barrels per day)120100
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Coal-firedelectricitySynthetic oil
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Burning natural gas emits CO 2 but
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Trade-OffsCoalxHOW WOULD YOU VOTE?
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Small amounts ofradioactive gasesUr
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After more than 50 years of develop
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CoalAmple supplyHigh net energyyiel
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corrode and release their radioacti
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out the entire rail or truck trip i
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manently in 1998. Because of this e
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18 andEnergy EfficiencyRenewable En
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Energy Inputs System Outputs86%8%3%
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source. These systems have an energ
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ABCombustion engine:Small, efficien
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Atlanta’s 13-story Georgia Power
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Net Energy EfficiencySuperinsulated
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Why Are We Still Wasting So Much En
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How Can We Cool Houses Naturally? I
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AdvantagesFairly high netenergyWork
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The DOE calls the Great Plains stat
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AdvantagesLarge potentialsupply in
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surface. Researchers in several cou
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Primary EnergySourcesHydrogenProduc
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Bioenergy power plantsWind farmSmal
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Nuclear energy(fission and fusion)$
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19 andRisk, Toxicology,Human Health
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Number of individuals affectedVerys
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How Can We Estimate the Toxicity of
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dosage. With the threshold dose-res
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HormoneEstrogenlike chemicalAntiand
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19-4 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:DISEASE IN
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A typical virus consists of a shell
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For example, the West Nile virus ha
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eggs4. Parasite invadesblood cells,
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AgentContagiousSymptomsMortality(if
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Cause of DeathAnnual DeathsPoverty/
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■ How should limited funds be spe
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20 AirPollutionAirPopulationPolluti
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layer of rising and falling air cur
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Air Pollution in the Past: The Bad
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tems, most scientists say that it m
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UltrafineParticlesSea salt nucleiFi
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Warmer airInversion layerIncreasing
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4.75.45.14.75.25.35.35.55.95.54.75.
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when the soil pH falls below 5.1. E
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educe or eliminate emissions of SO
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FurnaceSlabSoilClothesdryerRadon-22
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How Many People Die Prematurely fro
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plant expansions, or sell them to o
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Cleaned gasElectrodesCleaned gasDir
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PreventionCover ceiling tilesand li
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21 andClimate ChangeOzone LossClima
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Average surface temperature (°C)Av
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380410Concentration of carbon dioxi
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Table 21-2 Major Characteristics of
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are dying because the permafrost un
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CellCloudsLandOceanAccording to the
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They suggest that this indicates th
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Agriculture• Shifts in food-growi
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ter temperatures in the Sierra Neva
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PreventionCut fossil fueluse (espec
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taxes on carbon emissions or fuel u
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What Can You Do?Reducing CO 2 Emiss
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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluo
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ozone in the stratosphere. From a h
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Abundance (parts per trillion)INDIV
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22 WaterPollutionWaterPollutionCont
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Table 22-2 Common Diseases Transmit
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Because point sources are at specif
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veloped countries. Two causes of th
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Nitrogen compoundsproduced by carsa
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ties of acids, pesticides, and othe
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ern India drink groundwater contami
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100 kilometers (62 miles) of the co
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Dumping industrial waste off U.S. c
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The key to protecting oceans is to
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PrimarySecondaryGritBar screen cham
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where bacteria break down remaining
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Officials are working to find ways
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but
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A weed is a plant whose virtues hav
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veloped countries, but use in devel
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U.S. Department of Agricultureresis
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What Goes Around CanCome AroundU.S.
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our bodies, and we should be concer
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U.S. Department of AgricultureAgric
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and opposition from agricultural ch
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Solid wastes are only raw materials
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24-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTEWhat Are O
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PharmaceuticalplantSludgeLocal farm
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matter and energy resources, cuts p
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Reduces globalwarmingReduces acidde
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xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should househo
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Disposalwaste, pollutionUsebleach,d
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What Are the Advantages and Disadva
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What Harmful Chemicals Are in Your
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icals. Scientists are testing the u
Page 549 and 550:
Most hazardous waste in the United
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PreventionPhase out leadedgasoline
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EPA advised women who may become pr
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When they can be found, responsible
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out use of these chemicals and to d
Page 559 and 560:
25 SustainableCitiesBiodiversityEne
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Karachi10.4 million16.2 millionDhak
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Image provided courtesy of theU.S.
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InputsOutputsEnergyFoodWaterRawmate
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Despite joblessness, squalor, overc
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day—and injure another 15 million
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T rade-OffsMass Transit RailT rade-
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area (Figure 25-7) between 1862 and
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MajorhighwaysGreenbeltUrban centerS
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powered motorcycles by 2007, and is
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26 andEconomics, Environment,Sustai
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price matches what buyers are willi
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SunEARTHFigure 26-4 Ecological econ
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CostHighLowOptimum pollutionclean-u
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onment, their flow rates through th
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cluding costs, as much as possible,
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• Decreases depletion and degrada
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Should We Rely More on Tradable Pol
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Figure 26-14 Data on the global dis
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Microloans to the PoorMost of thewo
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Sunset BusinessesCoal miningOil pro
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27 andPolitics, Environment,Sustain
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ness, and environmental leaders and
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Leaders are persons whom other peop
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issue as the key to making governme
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LobbyistsLobbyistsLawmaking bodyPub
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19691970197119721973197419751976197
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noise to certain levels or to elimi
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The spearhead of the global conserv
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Such audits have resulted in numero
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natural capital. According to envir
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Speth and several other national an
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■ Open all discussions and findin
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7. Explain why you agree or disagre
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The main ingredients of an environm
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global economy with minimal governm
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What Is the Environmental WisdomWor
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onmental education. They cite some
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What Are Our Basic Needs?Obviously,
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new relationship with the earth tha
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APPENDIX 1UNITS OF MEASURELENGTHMet
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1930s 1940s 1950s1938 Federal Food,
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1970s1971Biologist BarryCommonerpub
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1991-2000Continuing efforts by anti
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OHcommon covalent compounds, formed
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A PPENDIX 4CLASSIFYING AND NAMING S
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GLOSSARYabiotic Nonliving. Compare
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CFCsSee chlorofluorocarbons.chain r
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timeters (10 inches) a year. Such a
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eutrophication Physical, chemical,
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high-throughput economy The situati
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distribution facilities. Compare hu
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and with atoms of one or more other
Page 665 and 666:
adioactive decay Change of a radioi
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soil permeability Rate at which wat
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transmissible disease A disease tha
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