Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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First TrophicLevelSecond TrophicLevelThird TrophicLevelFourth TrophicLevelProducers(plants)Primaryconsumers(herbivores)Secondaryconsumers(carnivores)Tertiaryconsumers(top carnivores)Heat Heat HeatSolarenergyHeatHeatHeatHeatDetritivores(decomposers and detritus feeders)HeatFigure 4-18 Model of a food chain. The arrows show how chemical energy in food flows through varioustrophic levels in energy transfers; most of the energy is degraded to heat, in accordance with the second law ofthermodynamics. Food chains rarely have more than four trophic levels. Can you figure out why?Each trophic level in a food chain or web contains acertain amount of biomass, the dry weight of all organicmatter contained in its organisms. In a foodchain or web, chemical energy stored in biomass istransferred from one trophic level to another.Energy transfer through food chains and foodwebs is not very efficient. The reason is that with eachtransfer some usable energy is degraded and lost tothe environment as low-quality heat, in accordancewith the second law of thermodynamics. Thus only asmall portion of what is eaten and digested is actuallyconverted into an organism’s bodily material or biomass,and the amount of usable energy available toeach successive trophic level declines.The percentage of usable energy transferredas biomass from one trophic level to the next is calledecological efficiency. It ranges from 2% to 40%(that is, a loss of 60–98%) depending on the typesof species and the ecosystem involved, but 10% istypical.Assuming 10% ecological efficiency (90% loss) ateach trophic transfer, if green plants in an area manageto capture 10,000 units of energy from the sun, thenonly about 1,000 units of energy will be available tosupport herbivores and only about 100 units to supportcarnivores.The more trophic levels in a food chain or web, thegreater the cumulative loss of usable energy as energyflows through the various trophic levels. The pyramidof energy flow in Figure 4-20 (p. 70) illustrates thisenergy loss for a simple food chain, assuming a 90%energy loss with each transfer. How does this diagramhelp explain why there are not very many tigers in theworld? Figure 4-21 (p. 70) shows the pyramid of energyflow during 1 year for an aquatic ecosystem inSilver Springs, Florida.Energy flow pyramids explain why the earth cansupport more people if they eat at lower trophic levelsby consuming grains, vegetables, and fruits directlyrather than passing such crops through another trophiclevel and eating grain eaters such as cattle.The large loss in energy between successivetrophic levels also explains why food chains and websrarely have more than four or five trophic levels. Inmost cases, too little energy is left after four or fivetransfers to support organisms feeding at these hightrophic levels. This explains why there are so few topcarnivores such as eagles, hawks, tigers, and whitesharks. It also explains why such species usually arethe first to suffer when the ecosystems supportingthem are disrupted, and why these species are so vulnerableto extinction. Do you think we are on this list?68 CHAPTER 4 Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work?
HumansBlue whaleSperm whaleCrabeater sealElephantsealKiller whaleLeopardsealEmperorpenguinAdelie ´penguinsPetrelSquidFishCarnivorous planktonKrillHerbivorouszooplanktonPhytoplanktonFigure 4-19 Greatly simplified food web in the Antarctic. Many more participants in theweb, including an array of decomposer organisms, are not depicted here. This is part of life’sinternet.http://biology.brookscole.com/miller1469
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1Environmental Problems, TheirCause
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AirSOLAR ENERGYRESOURCESWaterEnergy
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changes that lead to an increasingl
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take the resources of 1.15 planet e
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Causes of Environmental Problems•
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Developing Countriesxx=Population (
Page 13 and 14: ■ We should encourage earth-susta
Page 15 and 16: 2. Write two-page scenarios describ
Page 17 and 18: A continent ages quickly once we co
Page 19 and 20: Good NewsMore foodSupported alarger
Page 22 and 23: Figure 2-8 Theodore (“Teddy”)Ro
Page 24: What Happened during the 1970s? The
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Page 29 and 30: Science is an adventure of the huma
Page 31 and 32: CTIONSWhat Is Harmingthe Robins?Sup
Page 33 and 34: After building and testing a mathem
Page 35 and 36: I am going to give you a brief intr
Page 37 and 38: Figure 3-6 The pH scale, used to me
Page 39 and 40: The different molecules of DNA that
Page 41 and 42: Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2
Page 43: aluminum foil. When solid water (ic
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Page 48 and 49: SolarenergyChemicalenergy(photosynt
Page 50 and 51: number of resource users. In other
Page 52 and 53: The earth’s thin film of living m
Page 54 and 55: (a) Eukaryotic CellNucleus(informat
Page 56 and 57: AtmosphereVegetationBiosphereand an
Page 58 and 59: Coastal chaparraland scrubConiferou
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Page 62 and 63: Detritus feedersDecomposersLong-hor
Page 66 and 67: Figure 4-20 Generalized pyramid of
Page 68 and 69: Terrestrial EcosystemsSwamps and ma
Page 70 and 71: every handful of topsoil break down
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Page 74 and 75: Figure 4-29 Naturalcapital: simplif
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Page 80 and 81: How Are Human Activities Affecting
Page 82 and 83: For example, people visit degraded
Page 84 and 85: There is grandeur to this view of l
Page 86 and 87: According to the theory of evolutio
Page 88 and 89: Black skimmerseizes small fishat wa
Page 90 and 91: 5-4 SPECIATION, EXTINCTION,AND BIOD
Page 92 and 93: Scientists have also identified per
Page 94 and 95: Identify and extractgene with desir
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Page 98 and 99: To do science is to search for repe
Page 100 and 101: figure. Scientists hypothesize that
Page 102 and 103: ArcticCircleTropic ofCancerNorth Pa
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Page 110 and 111: Figure 6-20 Natural capital:some co
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Figure 6-25 Natural capitaldegradat
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Natural Capital DegradationGrasslan
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4540HarpyeagleEmergentlayer35Tocoto
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with sunlight available only 6-8 ho
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Natural Capital DegradationWhen we
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If there is magic on this planet, i
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there. Photosynthesis cannot take p
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Figure 7-7 View of an estuary taken
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Rocky Shore BeachSea starHermit cra
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Figure 7-12 Natural capital:some co
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EcologicalServicesClimatemoderation
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In warm months the bottom layer of
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According to scientists, we urgentl
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Animal and vegetable life is too co
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HighHighHighRate of immigrationor e
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mostly on land and eat insects that
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According to this hypothesis, musse
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Many people—influenced by movies
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strychnine, peyote, nicotine, and r
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It is tempting to think of mutualis
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How Do Species Replace One Another
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By contrast, grasslands are much le
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9Population EcologyPopulationContro
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The size of a population that inclu
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Number of reindeer2,0001,5001,00050
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Reproductive individuals in populat
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Percentage surviving (log scale)100
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A third type of alteration is using
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In the next chapter we will apply t
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The problems to be faced are vast a
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ates affect a country’s populatio
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United States Mexico CanadaPopulati
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and a high incidence of infectious
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Age100+95-9990-9485-8980-8475-7970-
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Age Distribution (%)403530252015105
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80Stage 1PreindustrialStage 2Transi
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also make up 70% of the world’s p
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Such experience also suggests that
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Forests precede civilizations, dese
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The Species ApproachGoalProtect spe
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parkways, trails, rivers, seashores
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Weak treesremovedFigure 11-8 Short
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AdvantagesHigher timberyieldsMaximu
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trees no faster than they are reple
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Sudden oak death White pine blister
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vere forest fires for two reasons.
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and degradation practices, Brazil
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SolutionsSustaining Tropical Forest
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• Integrate plans for managing pa
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Should Reserves Be as Large as Poss
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Figure 11-24 Endangered natural cap
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ity of ecosystems well enough to re
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original state? How much of it shou
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The last word in ignorance is the p
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Florida manatee Northern spotted ow
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each of these three species estimat
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BiophiliaBiologist EdwardO. Wilson
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Island species, many of them endemi
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Deliberately Introduced SpeciesPurp
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The Termite from HellForget killer
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© Karl Ammann. Biosynergy Institut
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tional Trade in Endangered Species
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Most people would say yes. The prob
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the act allows for economic concern
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ity, with the aim of reintroducing
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The Department of Defense controls
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13 SustainingAquatic BiodiversityBi
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CobiaHogfishKelpCarrageenPacific sa
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peated scraping. Slow-growing, long
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control approach and to be sure the
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(CITES), the 1979 Global Treaty on
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Beetle car, and some of its arterie
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What Role Can ReconciliationEcology
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eries. When it works, community-bas
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GULF OFMEXICOAgricultural areaTreat
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water withdrawal for irrigation. An
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SolutionsRebuilding Salmon Populati
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14 Foodand Soil ResourcesSoilBiodiv
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Industrialized agricultureShifting
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First green revolution(developed co
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Low-Tech Sustainable Agriculture in
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According to the U.S. Department of
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OvergrazingDeforestationErosionCaus
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(a) Terracing(b) Contour planting a
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2,000400Grain production(millions o
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People who are underfed and underwe
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14-6 INCREASING CROPPRODUCTIONWhat
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sistence farmers in developing coun
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capita meat production more than do
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A more expensive and less widely us
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Spotter airplaneFish farmingin cage
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estuaries. Then the fish are releas
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Currently, organic farming is used
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15 WaterResourcesWaterCASE STUDYWat
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physically connects us to one anoth
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Groundwater normally moves from poi
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and wildlife could trigger “water
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city’s water systems have been ta
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for the dams and reservoirs and has
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has devastated the area’s fishing
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Aquifers provide drinking water for
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WYOMINGCOLORADONEW MEXICOSOUTH DAKO
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Mohamed El-Ashry of the World Resou
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water waste by about 84% while irri
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15-8 TOO MUCH WATERWhat Causes Floo
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gradually. Another way to reduce fl
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16 MineralGeology and NonrenewableR
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AbyssalhillsAbyssalfloorOceanicridg
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usually rides up over the denser oc
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cant (less than 4.0 on the Richter
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ported from their sources by water,
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How Are Buried Mineral DepositsRemo
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16-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSOF USING
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Separationof ore fromgangueMetal or
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Some analysts contend that all we n
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Can We Find Substitutes for ScarceN
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Typical citizens of advanced indust
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Figure 17-5 shows energy consumptio
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Currently, oil has a high net energ
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ArcticOceanCoalPrince WilliamSoundG
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Oil (million barrels per day)120100
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Coal-firedelectricitySynthetic oil
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Burning natural gas emits CO 2 but
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Trade-OffsCoalxHOW WOULD YOU VOTE?
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Small amounts ofradioactive gasesUr
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After more than 50 years of develop
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CoalAmple supplyHigh net energyyiel
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corrode and release their radioacti
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out the entire rail or truck trip i
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manently in 1998. Because of this e
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18 andEnergy EfficiencyRenewable En
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Energy Inputs System Outputs86%8%3%
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source. These systems have an energ
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ABCombustion engine:Small, efficien
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Atlanta’s 13-story Georgia Power
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Net Energy EfficiencySuperinsulated
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Why Are We Still Wasting So Much En
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How Can We Cool Houses Naturally? I
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AdvantagesFairly high netenergyWork
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The DOE calls the Great Plains stat
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AdvantagesLarge potentialsupply in
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surface. Researchers in several cou
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Primary EnergySourcesHydrogenProduc
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Bioenergy power plantsWind farmSmal
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Nuclear energy(fission and fusion)$
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19 andRisk, Toxicology,Human Health
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Number of individuals affectedVerys
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How Can We Estimate the Toxicity of
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dosage. With the threshold dose-res
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HormoneEstrogenlike chemicalAntiand
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19-4 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:DISEASE IN
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A typical virus consists of a shell
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For example, the West Nile virus ha
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eggs4. Parasite invadesblood cells,
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AgentContagiousSymptomsMortality(if
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Cause of DeathAnnual DeathsPoverty/
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■ How should limited funds be spe
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20 AirPollutionAirPopulationPolluti
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layer of rising and falling air cur
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Air Pollution in the Past: The Bad
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tems, most scientists say that it m
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UltrafineParticlesSea salt nucleiFi
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Warmer airInversion layerIncreasing
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4.75.45.14.75.25.35.35.55.95.54.75.
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when the soil pH falls below 5.1. E
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educe or eliminate emissions of SO
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FurnaceSlabSoilClothesdryerRadon-22
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How Many People Die Prematurely fro
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plant expansions, or sell them to o
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Cleaned gasElectrodesCleaned gasDir
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PreventionCover ceiling tilesand li
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21 andClimate ChangeOzone LossClima
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Average surface temperature (°C)Av
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380410Concentration of carbon dioxi
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Table 21-2 Major Characteristics of
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are dying because the permafrost un
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CellCloudsLandOceanAccording to the
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They suggest that this indicates th
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Agriculture• Shifts in food-growi
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ter temperatures in the Sierra Neva
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PreventionCut fossil fueluse (espec
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taxes on carbon emissions or fuel u
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What Can You Do?Reducing CO 2 Emiss
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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluo
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ozone in the stratosphere. From a h
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Abundance (parts per trillion)INDIV
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22 WaterPollutionWaterPollutionCont
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Table 22-2 Common Diseases Transmit
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Because point sources are at specif
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veloped countries. Two causes of th
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Nitrogen compoundsproduced by carsa
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ties of acids, pesticides, and othe
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ern India drink groundwater contami
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100 kilometers (62 miles) of the co
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Dumping industrial waste off U.S. c
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The key to protecting oceans is to
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PrimarySecondaryGritBar screen cham
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where bacteria break down remaining
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Officials are working to find ways
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but
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A weed is a plant whose virtues hav
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veloped countries, but use in devel
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U.S. Department of Agricultureresis
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What Goes Around CanCome AroundU.S.
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our bodies, and we should be concer
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U.S. Department of AgricultureAgric
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and opposition from agricultural ch
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Solid wastes are only raw materials
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24-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTEWhat Are O
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PharmaceuticalplantSludgeLocal farm
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matter and energy resources, cuts p
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Reduces globalwarmingReduces acidde
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xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should househo
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Disposalwaste, pollutionUsebleach,d
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What Are the Advantages and Disadva
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What Harmful Chemicals Are in Your
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icals. Scientists are testing the u
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Most hazardous waste in the United
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PreventionPhase out leadedgasoline
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EPA advised women who may become pr
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When they can be found, responsible
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out use of these chemicals and to d
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25 SustainableCitiesBiodiversityEne
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Karachi10.4 million16.2 millionDhak
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Image provided courtesy of theU.S.
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InputsOutputsEnergyFoodWaterRawmate
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Despite joblessness, squalor, overc
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day—and injure another 15 million
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T rade-OffsMass Transit RailT rade-
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area (Figure 25-7) between 1862 and
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MajorhighwaysGreenbeltUrban centerS
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powered motorcycles by 2007, and is
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26 andEconomics, Environment,Sustai
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price matches what buyers are willi
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SunEARTHFigure 26-4 Ecological econ
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CostHighLowOptimum pollutionclean-u
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onment, their flow rates through th
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cluding costs, as much as possible,
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• Decreases depletion and degrada
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Should We Rely More on Tradable Pol
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Figure 26-14 Data on the global dis
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Microloans to the PoorMost of thewo
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Sunset BusinessesCoal miningOil pro
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27 andPolitics, Environment,Sustain
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ness, and environmental leaders and
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Leaders are persons whom other peop
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issue as the key to making governme
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LobbyistsLobbyistsLawmaking bodyPub
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19691970197119721973197419751976197
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noise to certain levels or to elimi
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The spearhead of the global conserv
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Such audits have resulted in numero
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natural capital. According to envir
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Speth and several other national an
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■ Open all discussions and findin
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7. Explain why you agree or disagre
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The main ingredients of an environm
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global economy with minimal governm
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What Is the Environmental WisdomWor
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onmental education. They cite some
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What Are Our Basic Needs?Obviously,
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new relationship with the earth tha
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APPENDIX 1UNITS OF MEASURELENGTHMet
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1930s 1940s 1950s1938 Federal Food,
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1970s1971Biologist BarryCommonerpub
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1991-2000Continuing efforts by anti
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OHcommon covalent compounds, formed
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A PPENDIX 4CLASSIFYING AND NAMING S
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GLOSSARYabiotic Nonliving. Compare
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CFCsSee chlorofluorocarbons.chain r
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timeters (10 inches) a year. Such a
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eutrophication Physical, chemical,
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high-throughput economy The situati
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distribution facilities. Compare hu
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and with atoms of one or more other
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adioactive decay Change of a radioi
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soil permeability Rate at which wat
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transmissible disease A disease tha
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