Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

group is the politically powerful transportation-relatedindustries such as oil and tire companies, roadbuilders, carmakers, and many real estate developers.However, taxpayers might accept sharp increases ingasoline taxes if the extra costs were offset by decreasesin taxes on wages and income.Second, fast, efficient, reliable, and affordable masstransit options and bike paths are not widely availablein most of the United States. In addition, the dispersednature of most U.S. urban areas makes people dependenton cars.Third, most people who can afford cars are virtuallyaddicted to them, and many people in the U.S. andelsewhere who cannot afford a car hope to buy onesomeday.What Are Alternatives to the Car? Use YourMuscles and Travel with OthersAlternatives include walking, bicycling, drivingscooters, and taking subways, trolleys, trains, andbuses.There are a number of alternatives to cars, each withadvantages and disadvantages. One widely used alternativeis the bicycle. Because of their advantages(Figure 25-10), bicycles outsell cars by more than twoto one.AdvantagesAffordableProduce nopollutionQuietRequire littleparking spaceEasy tomaneuver intrafficTake fewresources tomakeVery energyefficientProvide exerciseT rade-OffsBicyclesDisadvantagesLittle protectionin an accidentDo not protectriders frombad weatherNot practical fortrips longer than8 kilometers(5 miles)Can be tiring(except for electricbicycles)Lack of secure bikeparkingFigure 25-10 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages ofbicycles. Pick the single advantage and disadvantage that youthink are the most important.AdvantagesAffordableProduce less airpollution than carsRequire littleparking spaceEasy to maneuverin trafficElectric scootersare quiet andproduce littlepollutionT rade-OffsMotor ScootersDisadvantagesLittle protection inan accidentDoes not protectdrivers from badweatherGasoline enginesare noisyGasoline enginesemit largequantities of airpollutantsFigure 25-11 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages ofmotor scooters. Pick the single advantage and disadvantagethat you think are the most important.Bicycles are widely used for urban trips in countriessuch as the Netherlands, China, and Japan. Bicyclingand walking account for about 28% of the trips inthe Netherlands, compared to only 6% in the UnitedStates. In Copenhagen, Denmark, 2,300 bicycles areavailable for public use at no charge. The system is financedby ads attached to the bicycle frames andwheels, and is so popular that each bicycle is used onaverage once every 8 minutes.Only one of every 200 Americans bicycle to work.But one out of five say they would do so if safe bikelanes were available and if their employers providedsecure bike storage and showers at work.About 2 million electric bicycles are on the roadworldwide, and about 400,000 more are added eachyear. Existing bikes can easily be converted to electricbikes, and new ones can be bought for $500–1,200. Bicyclespowered by small fuel cells should be availablewithin a few years.Motor scooters have advantages and disadvantages(Figure 25-11) and are especially useful for people indeveloping countries who cannot afford a car. Electricscooters can reduce air pollution and noise.Heavy-rail systems (subways, elevated railways,and metro trains) and light-rail systems (streetcars,trolley cars, and tramways) have their advantages anddisadvantages (Figure 25-12). To be cost effective, railsystems must travel along densely populated corridorsin urban areas. At one time the United States hadan effective light-rail system, but it was dismantled topromote car and bus use (Case Study, p. 576).The rail system in Hong Kong is one of theworld’s most successful for three reasons. First, the574 CHAPTER 25 Sustainable Cities