Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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FurnaceHeatedcrude oilGasesGasolineAviation fuelHeating oilDiesel oilNaphthaGreaseand waxAsphaltHSRFOODSThe 11 countries that make up the Organization ofPetroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) have 78% ofthe world’s estimated crude oil reserves. This explainswhy OPEC is expected to have long-term control overthe supplies and prices of the world’s conventional oil.Today OPEC’s members are Algeria, Indonesia, Iran,Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela.Saudi Arabia, with 25%, has by far the largest proportionof the world’s proven crude oil reserves, followedby Canada (15%)—because its huge supply ofoil sand was recently classified as a conventionalsource of oil. Other countries with large proven reservesare Iraq (11%), the United Arab Emirates (9.3%),Kuwait (9.2%), and Iran (8.6%).Most analysts say it is only a matter of time beforethe Middle Eastern share of global oil production increasesfrom its current 30% to at least 50%. This is whythe world’s other nations have such vital economicand military security interests in helping preserve politicalstability in the often-volatile Middle East.Here is the problem in a nutshell. Oil is the mostwidely used energy resource in the world and in theUnited States. Some call the people in developed countriesoilaholics, and the world’s largest suppliers tothem are Canada, Saudi Arabia, and several otherPersian Gulf Middle Eastern countries. To some theworld economy is built largely on how long SaudiaArabia’s House of Saud rulers can continue. There isalso concern that terrorist assaults on a few key partsof the country’s oil system could put the Saudis out ofthe oil business for up to 2 years and create global economicchaos.Figure 17-8 Refining crude oil. Based on their boiling points,components are removed at various levels in a giant distillationcolumn. The most volatile components with the lowest boilingpoints are removed at the top of the column.Some products of oil distillation, called petrochemicals,are used as raw materials in manufacturingpesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, medicines,and many other products. Look at your clothes andother items around you and try to figure out howmany of these things were made from chemicals producedby distilling oil.Who Has the World’s Oil Supplies?OPEC RulesEleven OPEC countries—most of them in the MiddleEast—have 78% of the world’s proven oil reservesand most of the world’s unproven reserves.The oil industry is the world’s largest business. Thuscontrol of current and future oil reserves is the singlegreatest source of global economic and political power.Case Study: How Much Oil Does the UnitedStates Have? Rapidly Dwindling SuppliesThe United States—the world’s largest oil user—hasonly 2.9% of the world’s proven oil reserves and onlya small percentage of its unproven reserves.Figure 17-9 shows the locations of the major knowndeposits of fossil fuels in the United States and Canadaand ocean areas where more crude oil and natural gasmight be found. About one-fourth of U.S. domestic oilproduction comes from offshore drilling (mostly offthe coasts of Texas and Louisiana, Figure 17-10) and17% from Alaska’s North Slope.The United States has only 2.9% of the world’s oilreserves. But it uses about 26% of the crude oil extractedworldwide each year (over two-thirds of thatfor transportation), mostly because oil is an abundant,convenient, and cheap fuel (Figure 17-11, p. 358). Despitean upsurge in exploration and test drilling, U.S.oil extraction has declined since 1985, and most geologistsdo not expect a significant increase in domesticsupplies (Figure 17-12, p. 358). And the United Statesproduces most of its dwindling supply of oil at a high356 CHAPTER 17 Nonrenewable Energy Resources
ArcticOceanCoalPrince WilliamSoundGulf ofAlaskaALASKATrans Alaskaoil pipelineValdezPrudhoe BayArctic NationalWildlife RefugeBeaufortSeaGasOilHigh potentialareasCANADACANADAPacificOceanUNITEDUNITEDSTATESGrandBanksSTATESAtlanticOceanMEXICOMEXICOFigure 17-9 Natural capital: locations of the major known deposits of oil, natural gas, and coal in NorthAmerica and offshore areas where more crude oil and natural gas might be found. Geologists do not expectto find very much new oil and natural gas in North America. (Council on Environmental Quality andU.S. Geological Survey)LOUISIANA ALABAMAMISSISSIPPIGEORGIATEXASFLORIDAGULF OF MEXICOActive drilling sitesFigure 17-10 Offshore drilling for oil accounts for about one-fourth ofU.S. oil production. About nine of every ten barrels of this oil comesfrom the Gulf of Mexico, where there are 4,000 oil drilling platformsand 53,000 kilometers (33,000 miles) of underwater pipeline. (U.S.Geological Survey)http://biology.brookscole.com/miller14357
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1Environmental Problems, TheirCause
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AirSOLAR ENERGYRESOURCESWaterEnergy
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changes that lead to an increasingl
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take the resources of 1.15 planet e
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Causes of Environmental Problems•
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Developing Countriesxx=Population (
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■ We should encourage earth-susta
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2. Write two-page scenarios describ
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A continent ages quickly once we co
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Good NewsMore foodSupported alarger
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Figure 2-8 Theodore (“Teddy”)Ro
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What Happened during the 1970s? The
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on which they and their ancestors h
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Science is an adventure of the huma
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CTIONSWhat Is Harmingthe Robins?Sup
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After building and testing a mathem
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I am going to give you a brief intr
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Figure 3-6 The pH scale, used to me
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The different molecules of DNA that
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Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2
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aluminum foil. When solid water (ic
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nn23592 UUranium-235nucleus9236Kr14
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SolarenergyChemicalenergy(photosynt
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number of resource users. In other
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The earth’s thin film of living m
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(a) Eukaryotic CellNucleus(informat
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AtmosphereVegetationBiosphereand an
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Coastal chaparraland scrubConiferou
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NoorganismsLower limitof toleranceF
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Detritus feedersDecomposersLong-hor
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First TrophicLevelSecond TrophicLev
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Figure 4-20 Generalized pyramid of
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Terrestrial EcosystemsSwamps and ma
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every handful of topsoil break down
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suited for plant growth. It has a t
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Figure 4-29 Naturalcapital: simplif
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wildlife habitats, alter temperatur
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miningFertilizerexcretionuptake bya
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How Are Human Activities Affecting
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For example, people visit degraded
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There is grandeur to this view of l
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According to the theory of evolutio
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Black skimmerseizes small fishat wa
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5-4 SPECIATION, EXTINCTION,AND BIOD
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Scientists have also identified per
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Identify and extractgene with desir
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infrared radiation, as a rattlesnak
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To do science is to search for repe
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figure. Scientists hypothesize that
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ArcticCircleTropic ofCancerNorth Pa
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Winds can also affect regionalclima
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FPO(a) Rays of sunlight penetrateth
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ColdPolarTundraSubpolarDecreasing t
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Figure 6-20 Natural capital:some co
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Beisa oryxCape buffaloWildebeestTop
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Figure 6-25 Natural capitaldegradat
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Natural Capital DegradationGrasslan
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4540HarpyeagleEmergentlayer35Tocoto
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with sunlight available only 6-8 ho
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Natural Capital DegradationWhen we
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If there is magic on this planet, i
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there. Photosynthesis cannot take p
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Figure 7-7 View of an estuary taken
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Rocky Shore BeachSea starHermit cra
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Figure 7-12 Natural capital:some co
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EcologicalServicesClimatemoderation
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In warm months the bottom layer of
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According to scientists, we urgentl
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Animal and vegetable life is too co
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HighHighHighRate of immigrationor e
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mostly on land and eat insects that
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According to this hypothesis, musse
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Many people—influenced by movies
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strychnine, peyote, nicotine, and r
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It is tempting to think of mutualis
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How Do Species Replace One Another
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By contrast, grasslands are much le
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9Population EcologyPopulationContro
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The size of a population that inclu
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Number of reindeer2,0001,5001,00050
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Reproductive individuals in populat
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Percentage surviving (log scale)100
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A third type of alteration is using
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In the next chapter we will apply t
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The problems to be faced are vast a
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ates affect a country’s populatio
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United States Mexico CanadaPopulati
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and a high incidence of infectious
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Age100+95-9990-9485-8980-8475-7970-
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Age Distribution (%)403530252015105
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80Stage 1PreindustrialStage 2Transi
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also make up 70% of the world’s p
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Such experience also suggests that
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Forests precede civilizations, dese
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The Species ApproachGoalProtect spe
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parkways, trails, rivers, seashores
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Weak treesremovedFigure 11-8 Short
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AdvantagesHigher timberyieldsMaximu
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trees no faster than they are reple
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Sudden oak death White pine blister
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vere forest fires for two reasons.
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and degradation practices, Brazil
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SolutionsSustaining Tropical Forest
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• Integrate plans for managing pa
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Should Reserves Be as Large as Poss
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Figure 11-24 Endangered natural cap
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ity of ecosystems well enough to re
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original state? How much of it shou
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The last word in ignorance is the p
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Florida manatee Northern spotted ow
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each of these three species estimat
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BiophiliaBiologist EdwardO. Wilson
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Island species, many of them endemi
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Deliberately Introduced SpeciesPurp
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The Termite from HellForget killer
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© Karl Ammann. Biosynergy Institut
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tional Trade in Endangered Species
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Most people would say yes. The prob
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the act allows for economic concern
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ity, with the aim of reintroducing
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The Department of Defense controls
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13 SustainingAquatic BiodiversityBi
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CobiaHogfishKelpCarrageenPacific sa
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peated scraping. Slow-growing, long
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control approach and to be sure the
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(CITES), the 1979 Global Treaty on
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Beetle car, and some of its arterie
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What Role Can ReconciliationEcology
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eries. When it works, community-bas
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GULF OFMEXICOAgricultural areaTreat
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water withdrawal for irrigation. An
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SolutionsRebuilding Salmon Populati
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14 Foodand Soil ResourcesSoilBiodiv
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Industrialized agricultureShifting
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First green revolution(developed co
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Low-Tech Sustainable Agriculture in
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According to the U.S. Department of
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OvergrazingDeforestationErosionCaus
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(a) Terracing(b) Contour planting a
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2,000400Grain production(millions o
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People who are underfed and underwe
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14-6 INCREASING CROPPRODUCTIONWhat
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sistence farmers in developing coun
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capita meat production more than do
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A more expensive and less widely us
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Spotter airplaneFish farmingin cage
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estuaries. Then the fish are releas
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Currently, organic farming is used
Page 301 and 302: 15 WaterResourcesWaterCASE STUDYWat
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Page 339 and 340: 16-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSOF USING
Page 341 and 342: Separationof ore fromgangueMetal or
Page 343 and 344: Some analysts contend that all we n
Page 345 and 346: Can We Find Substitutes for ScarceN
Page 347 and 348: Typical citizens of advanced indust
Page 349 and 350: Figure 17-5 shows energy consumptio
Page 351: Currently, oil has a high net energ
Page 355 and 356: Oil (million barrels per day)120100
Page 357 and 358: Coal-firedelectricitySynthetic oil
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Page 361 and 362: Trade-OffsCoalxHOW WOULD YOU VOTE?
Page 363 and 364: Small amounts ofradioactive gasesUr
Page 365 and 366: After more than 50 years of develop
Page 367 and 368: CoalAmple supplyHigh net energyyiel
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Page 373 and 374: manently in 1998. Because of this e
Page 375 and 376: 18 andEnergy EfficiencyRenewable En
Page 377 and 378: Energy Inputs System Outputs86%8%3%
Page 379 and 380: source. These systems have an energ
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Page 385 and 386: Net Energy EfficiencySuperinsulated
Page 387 and 388: Why Are We Still Wasting So Much En
Page 389 and 390: How Can We Cool Houses Naturally? I
Page 391 and 392: AdvantagesFairly high netenergyWork
Page 393 and 394: The DOE calls the Great Plains stat
Page 395 and 396: AdvantagesLarge potentialsupply in
Page 397 and 398: surface. Researchers in several cou
Page 399 and 400: Primary EnergySourcesHydrogenProduc
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Nuclear energy(fission and fusion)$
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19 andRisk, Toxicology,Human Health
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Number of individuals affectedVerys
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How Can We Estimate the Toxicity of
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dosage. With the threshold dose-res
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HormoneEstrogenlike chemicalAntiand
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19-4 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:DISEASE IN
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A typical virus consists of a shell
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For example, the West Nile virus ha
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eggs4. Parasite invadesblood cells,
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AgentContagiousSymptomsMortality(if
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Cause of DeathAnnual DeathsPoverty/
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■ How should limited funds be spe
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20 AirPollutionAirPopulationPolluti
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layer of rising and falling air cur
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Air Pollution in the Past: The Bad
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tems, most scientists say that it m
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UltrafineParticlesSea salt nucleiFi
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Warmer airInversion layerIncreasing
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4.75.45.14.75.25.35.35.55.95.54.75.
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when the soil pH falls below 5.1. E
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educe or eliminate emissions of SO
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FurnaceSlabSoilClothesdryerRadon-22
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How Many People Die Prematurely fro
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plant expansions, or sell them to o
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Cleaned gasElectrodesCleaned gasDir
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PreventionCover ceiling tilesand li
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21 andClimate ChangeOzone LossClima
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Average surface temperature (°C)Av
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380410Concentration of carbon dioxi
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Table 21-2 Major Characteristics of
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are dying because the permafrost un
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CellCloudsLandOceanAccording to the
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They suggest that this indicates th
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Agriculture• Shifts in food-growi
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ter temperatures in the Sierra Neva
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PreventionCut fossil fueluse (espec
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taxes on carbon emissions or fuel u
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What Can You Do?Reducing CO 2 Emiss
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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluo
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ozone in the stratosphere. From a h
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Abundance (parts per trillion)INDIV
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22 WaterPollutionWaterPollutionCont
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Table 22-2 Common Diseases Transmit
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Because point sources are at specif
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veloped countries. Two causes of th
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Nitrogen compoundsproduced by carsa
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ties of acids, pesticides, and othe
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ern India drink groundwater contami
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100 kilometers (62 miles) of the co
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Dumping industrial waste off U.S. c
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The key to protecting oceans is to
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PrimarySecondaryGritBar screen cham
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where bacteria break down remaining
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Officials are working to find ways
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but
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A weed is a plant whose virtues hav
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veloped countries, but use in devel
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U.S. Department of Agricultureresis
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What Goes Around CanCome AroundU.S.
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our bodies, and we should be concer
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U.S. Department of AgricultureAgric
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and opposition from agricultural ch
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Solid wastes are only raw materials
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24-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTEWhat Are O
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PharmaceuticalplantSludgeLocal farm
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matter and energy resources, cuts p
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Reduces globalwarmingReduces acidde
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xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should househo
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Disposalwaste, pollutionUsebleach,d
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What Are the Advantages and Disadva
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What Harmful Chemicals Are in Your
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icals. Scientists are testing the u
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Most hazardous waste in the United
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PreventionPhase out leadedgasoline
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EPA advised women who may become pr
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When they can be found, responsible
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out use of these chemicals and to d
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25 SustainableCitiesBiodiversityEne
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Karachi10.4 million16.2 millionDhak
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Image provided courtesy of theU.S.
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InputsOutputsEnergyFoodWaterRawmate
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Despite joblessness, squalor, overc
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day—and injure another 15 million
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T rade-OffsMass Transit RailT rade-
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area (Figure 25-7) between 1862 and
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MajorhighwaysGreenbeltUrban centerS
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powered motorcycles by 2007, and is
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26 andEconomics, Environment,Sustai
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price matches what buyers are willi
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SunEARTHFigure 26-4 Ecological econ
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CostHighLowOptimum pollutionclean-u
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onment, their flow rates through th
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cluding costs, as much as possible,
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• Decreases depletion and degrada
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Should We Rely More on Tradable Pol
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Figure 26-14 Data on the global dis
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Microloans to the PoorMost of thewo
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Sunset BusinessesCoal miningOil pro
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27 andPolitics, Environment,Sustain
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ness, and environmental leaders and
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Leaders are persons whom other peop
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issue as the key to making governme
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LobbyistsLobbyistsLawmaking bodyPub
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19691970197119721973197419751976197
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noise to certain levels or to elimi
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The spearhead of the global conserv
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Such audits have resulted in numero
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natural capital. According to envir
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Speth and several other national an
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■ Open all discussions and findin
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7. Explain why you agree or disagre
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The main ingredients of an environm
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global economy with minimal governm
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What Is the Environmental WisdomWor
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onmental education. They cite some
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What Are Our Basic Needs?Obviously,
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new relationship with the earth tha
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APPENDIX 1UNITS OF MEASURELENGTHMet
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1930s 1940s 1950s1938 Federal Food,
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1970s1971Biologist BarryCommonerpub
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1991-2000Continuing efforts by anti
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OHcommon covalent compounds, formed
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A PPENDIX 4CLASSIFYING AND NAMING S
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GLOSSARYabiotic Nonliving. Compare
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CFCsSee chlorofluorocarbons.chain r
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timeters (10 inches) a year. Such a
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eutrophication Physical, chemical,
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high-throughput economy The situati
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distribution facilities. Compare hu
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and with atoms of one or more other
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adioactive decay Change of a radioi
Page 667 and 668:
soil permeability Rate at which wat
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transmissible disease A disease tha
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