Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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Nonnative species are the second greatest threat tobirds. They include bird-eating cats, rats, brown-treesnakes, and mongooses.Birds can also be loved to death. A third of theworld’s 330 parrot species are threatened from a combinationof habitat loss and capture for the pet trade (oftenillegal), especially in Europe and the United States.At least 23 species of seabirds face extinction becausethey are being drowned after becoming hookedon miles of baited lines put out by fishing boats. Millionsof migrating birds are also killed each year whenthey collide with power lines, communications towers,and skyscrapers that we have erected in the middle oftheir migration routes. For example, each year U.S.hunters kill about 121 million birds. But about 1 billionbirds are killed in the U.S. each year by flying intoglass windows.Other threats to birds are oil spills, exposure topesticides, herbicides that destroy their habitats, andswallowing toxic lead shotgun pellets left in wetlandsand lead sinkers left by anglers. Poorly regulated illegalhunting and capture also take a heavy toll.Conservation biologists view this decline of birdspecies as an early warning of the greater loss of biodiversityto come. The reason is that birds are excellentenvironmental indicators because they live in every climateand biome, respond quickly to environmentalchanges in their habitats, and are easy to track andcount.Besides serving as indicator species, birds play importantecological roles. These include helping controlpopulations of rodents and insects (which decimatemany tree species), pollinating a variety of floweringplants, spreading plants throughout their habitats byconsuming and excreting plant seeds, and scavengingdead animals. Conservation biologists urge us to listenmore carefully to what birds are telling us about thestate of the environment.provide more than 98% of the U.S. food supply. Similarly,nonnative tree species are grown in about 85% ofthe world’s tree plantations. Some deliberately introducedspecies have also helped control pests.The problem is that some introduced species haveno natural predators, competitors, parasites, or pathogensto help control their numbers in their new habitats.Such species can reduce or wipe out populationsof many native species and trigger ecological disruptions.Figure 12-9 shows some of the estimated 50,000nonnative species deliberately or accidentally introducedinto the United States that have caused ecologicaland economic harm.After habitat loss and degradation, the deliberateor accidental introduction of nonnative species intoecosystems is the biggest cause of animal and plantextinctions. Nonnative species threaten almost half ofthe more than 1,260 endangered and threatened speciesin the United States and 95% of those in the stateof Hawaii, according to the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService. They are also blamed for about two-thirds offish extinctions in the United States between 1900 and2000. One example of a deliberately introduced plantspecies is the kudzu (“CUD-zoo”) vine, which growsrampant in the southeastern United States (see CaseStudy below).Deliberately introduced animal species have alsocaused ecological and economic damage. An exampleis the estimated 1 million European wild (feral) boars, orhogs (Figure 12-9), found in parts of Florida, Texas, andother states. They breed like rabbits, have razor-sharptusks, compete for food with endangered animals, rootup farm fields, and cause traffic accidents. Game andwildlife officials have had little success in controllingtheir numbers with hunting and trapping and saythere is no way to stop them. Another example is theestimated 30 million feral cats and 41 million outdoor petcats introduced into the United States; they kill about568 million birds per year!12-4 EXTINCTION THREATSFROM NONNATIVE SPECIESWhat Is the Role of Deliberately IntroducedSpecies? Good and Bad NewsMany nonnative species provide us with food,medicine, and other benefits but a few can wipe outsome native species, disrupt ecosystems, and causelarge economic losses.We depend heavily on nonnative organisms for ecosystemservices, food, shelter, medicine, and aestheticenjoyment.According to a 2000 study by ecologist DavidPimentel, introduced species such as corn, wheat, rice,other food crops, cattle, poultry, and other livestockCase Study: Deliberate Introduction of theKudzu Vine: Unintended ConsequencesThe rapidly growing kudzu vine has spread throughoutmuch of the southern United States and is almostimpossible to control.In the 1930s the kudzu vine was imported from Japanand planted in the southeastern United States to helpcontrol soil erosion. It does control erosion. But it is soprolific and difficult to kill that it engulfs hillsides, gardens,trees, abandoned houses and cars, stream banks,Figure 12-9 (facing page) Threats to natural capital: somenonnative species that have been deliberately or accidentallyintroduced into the United States.234 CHAPTER 12 Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach
Deliberately Introduced SpeciesPurple loosestrife European starling African honeybee Nutria Salt cedar(“Killer bee”)(Tamarisk)Marine toad(Giant toad)Water hyacinthJapanese beetleHydrillaEuropean wild boar(Feral pig)Accidentally Introduced SpeciesSea lamprey(attached to lake trout)Argentina fire antBrown tree snakeEurasian ruffeCommon pigeon(Rock dove)Formosan termite Zebra musselAsian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvaehttp://biology.brookscole.com/miller14235
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1Environmental Problems, TheirCause
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AirSOLAR ENERGYRESOURCESWaterEnergy
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changes that lead to an increasingl
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take the resources of 1.15 planet e
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Causes of Environmental Problems•
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Developing Countriesxx=Population (
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■ We should encourage earth-susta
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2. Write two-page scenarios describ
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A continent ages quickly once we co
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Good NewsMore foodSupported alarger
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Figure 2-8 Theodore (“Teddy”)Ro
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What Happened during the 1970s? The
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on which they and their ancestors h
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Science is an adventure of the huma
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CTIONSWhat Is Harmingthe Robins?Sup
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After building and testing a mathem
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I am going to give you a brief intr
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Figure 3-6 The pH scale, used to me
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The different molecules of DNA that
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Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2
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aluminum foil. When solid water (ic
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nn23592 UUranium-235nucleus9236Kr14
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SolarenergyChemicalenergy(photosynt
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number of resource users. In other
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The earth’s thin film of living m
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(a) Eukaryotic CellNucleus(informat
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AtmosphereVegetationBiosphereand an
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Coastal chaparraland scrubConiferou
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NoorganismsLower limitof toleranceF
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Detritus feedersDecomposersLong-hor
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First TrophicLevelSecond TrophicLev
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Figure 4-20 Generalized pyramid of
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Terrestrial EcosystemsSwamps and ma
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every handful of topsoil break down
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suited for plant growth. It has a t
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Figure 4-29 Naturalcapital: simplif
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wildlife habitats, alter temperatur
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miningFertilizerexcretionuptake bya
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How Are Human Activities Affecting
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For example, people visit degraded
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There is grandeur to this view of l
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According to the theory of evolutio
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Black skimmerseizes small fishat wa
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5-4 SPECIATION, EXTINCTION,AND BIOD
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Scientists have also identified per
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Identify and extractgene with desir
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infrared radiation, as a rattlesnak
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To do science is to search for repe
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figure. Scientists hypothesize that
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ArcticCircleTropic ofCancerNorth Pa
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Winds can also affect regionalclima
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FPO(a) Rays of sunlight penetrateth
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ColdPolarTundraSubpolarDecreasing t
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Figure 6-20 Natural capital:some co
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Beisa oryxCape buffaloWildebeestTop
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Figure 6-25 Natural capitaldegradat
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Natural Capital DegradationGrasslan
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4540HarpyeagleEmergentlayer35Tocoto
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with sunlight available only 6-8 ho
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Natural Capital DegradationWhen we
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If there is magic on this planet, i
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there. Photosynthesis cannot take p
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Figure 7-7 View of an estuary taken
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Rocky Shore BeachSea starHermit cra
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Figure 7-12 Natural capital:some co
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EcologicalServicesClimatemoderation
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In warm months the bottom layer of
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According to scientists, we urgentl
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Animal and vegetable life is too co
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HighHighHighRate of immigrationor e
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mostly on land and eat insects that
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According to this hypothesis, musse
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Many people—influenced by movies
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strychnine, peyote, nicotine, and r
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It is tempting to think of mutualis
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How Do Species Replace One Another
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By contrast, grasslands are much le
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9Population EcologyPopulationContro
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The size of a population that inclu
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Number of reindeer2,0001,5001,00050
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Reproductive individuals in populat
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Percentage surviving (log scale)100
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A third type of alteration is using
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In the next chapter we will apply t
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The problems to be faced are vast a
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ates affect a country’s populatio
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United States Mexico CanadaPopulati
Page 179 and 180: and a high incidence of infectious
Page 181 and 182: Age100+95-9990-9485-8980-8475-7970-
Page 183 and 184: Age Distribution (%)403530252015105
Page 185 and 186: 80Stage 1PreindustrialStage 2Transi
Page 187 and 188: also make up 70% of the world’s p
Page 189 and 190: Such experience also suggests that
Page 191 and 192: Forests precede civilizations, dese
Page 193 and 194: The Species ApproachGoalProtect spe
Page 195 and 196: parkways, trails, rivers, seashores
Page 197 and 198: Weak treesremovedFigure 11-8 Short
Page 199 and 200: AdvantagesHigher timberyieldsMaximu
Page 201 and 202: trees no faster than they are reple
Page 203 and 204: Sudden oak death White pine blister
Page 205 and 206: vere forest fires for two reasons.
Page 207 and 208: and degradation practices, Brazil
Page 209 and 210: SolutionsSustaining Tropical Forest
Page 211 and 212: • Integrate plans for managing pa
Page 213 and 214: Should Reserves Be as Large as Poss
Page 215 and 216: Figure 11-24 Endangered natural cap
Page 217 and 218: ity of ecosystems well enough to re
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Page 221 and 222: The last word in ignorance is the p
Page 223 and 224: Florida manatee Northern spotted ow
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Page 227 and 228: BiophiliaBiologist EdwardO. Wilson
Page 229: Island species, many of them endemi
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Page 235 and 236: © Karl Ammann. Biosynergy Institut
Page 237 and 238: tional Trade in Endangered Species
Page 239 and 240: Most people would say yes. The prob
Page 241 and 242: the act allows for economic concern
Page 243 and 244: ity, with the aim of reintroducing
Page 245 and 246: The Department of Defense controls
Page 247 and 248: 13 SustainingAquatic BiodiversityBi
Page 249 and 250: CobiaHogfishKelpCarrageenPacific sa
Page 251 and 252: peated scraping. Slow-growing, long
Page 253 and 254: control approach and to be sure the
Page 255 and 256: (CITES), the 1979 Global Treaty on
Page 257 and 258: Beetle car, and some of its arterie
Page 259 and 260: What Role Can ReconciliationEcology
Page 261 and 262: eries. When it works, community-bas
Page 263 and 264: GULF OFMEXICOAgricultural areaTreat
Page 265 and 266: water withdrawal for irrigation. An
Page 267 and 268: SolutionsRebuilding Salmon Populati
Page 269 and 270: 14 Foodand Soil ResourcesSoilBiodiv
Page 271 and 272: Industrialized agricultureShifting
Page 273 and 274: First green revolution(developed co
Page 275 and 276: Low-Tech Sustainable Agriculture in
Page 277 and 278: According to the U.S. Department of
Page 279 and 280: OvergrazingDeforestationErosionCaus
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(a) Terracing(b) Contour planting a
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2,000400Grain production(millions o
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People who are underfed and underwe
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14-6 INCREASING CROPPRODUCTIONWhat
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sistence farmers in developing coun
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capita meat production more than do
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A more expensive and less widely us
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Spotter airplaneFish farmingin cage
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estuaries. Then the fish are releas
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Currently, organic farming is used
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15 WaterResourcesWaterCASE STUDYWat
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physically connects us to one anoth
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Groundwater normally moves from poi
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and wildlife could trigger “water
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city’s water systems have been ta
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for the dams and reservoirs and has
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has devastated the area’s fishing
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Aquifers provide drinking water for
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WYOMINGCOLORADONEW MEXICOSOUTH DAKO
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Mohamed El-Ashry of the World Resou
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water waste by about 84% while irri
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15-8 TOO MUCH WATERWhat Causes Floo
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gradually. Another way to reduce fl
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16 MineralGeology and NonrenewableR
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AbyssalhillsAbyssalfloorOceanicridg
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usually rides up over the denser oc
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cant (less than 4.0 on the Richter
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ported from their sources by water,
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How Are Buried Mineral DepositsRemo
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16-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSOF USING
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Separationof ore fromgangueMetal or
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Some analysts contend that all we n
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Can We Find Substitutes for ScarceN
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Typical citizens of advanced indust
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Figure 17-5 shows energy consumptio
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Currently, oil has a high net energ
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ArcticOceanCoalPrince WilliamSoundG
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Oil (million barrels per day)120100
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Coal-firedelectricitySynthetic oil
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Burning natural gas emits CO 2 but
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Trade-OffsCoalxHOW WOULD YOU VOTE?
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Small amounts ofradioactive gasesUr
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After more than 50 years of develop
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CoalAmple supplyHigh net energyyiel
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corrode and release their radioacti
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out the entire rail or truck trip i
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manently in 1998. Because of this e
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18 andEnergy EfficiencyRenewable En
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Energy Inputs System Outputs86%8%3%
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source. These systems have an energ
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ABCombustion engine:Small, efficien
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Atlanta’s 13-story Georgia Power
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Net Energy EfficiencySuperinsulated
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Why Are We Still Wasting So Much En
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How Can We Cool Houses Naturally? I
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AdvantagesFairly high netenergyWork
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The DOE calls the Great Plains stat
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AdvantagesLarge potentialsupply in
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surface. Researchers in several cou
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Primary EnergySourcesHydrogenProduc
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Bioenergy power plantsWind farmSmal
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Nuclear energy(fission and fusion)$
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19 andRisk, Toxicology,Human Health
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Number of individuals affectedVerys
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How Can We Estimate the Toxicity of
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dosage. With the threshold dose-res
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HormoneEstrogenlike chemicalAntiand
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19-4 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:DISEASE IN
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A typical virus consists of a shell
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For example, the West Nile virus ha
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eggs4. Parasite invadesblood cells,
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AgentContagiousSymptomsMortality(if
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Cause of DeathAnnual DeathsPoverty/
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■ How should limited funds be spe
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20 AirPollutionAirPopulationPolluti
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layer of rising and falling air cur
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Air Pollution in the Past: The Bad
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tems, most scientists say that it m
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UltrafineParticlesSea salt nucleiFi
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Warmer airInversion layerIncreasing
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4.75.45.14.75.25.35.35.55.95.54.75.
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when the soil pH falls below 5.1. E
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educe or eliminate emissions of SO
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FurnaceSlabSoilClothesdryerRadon-22
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How Many People Die Prematurely fro
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plant expansions, or sell them to o
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Cleaned gasElectrodesCleaned gasDir
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PreventionCover ceiling tilesand li
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21 andClimate ChangeOzone LossClima
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Average surface temperature (°C)Av
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380410Concentration of carbon dioxi
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Table 21-2 Major Characteristics of
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are dying because the permafrost un
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CellCloudsLandOceanAccording to the
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They suggest that this indicates th
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Agriculture• Shifts in food-growi
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ter temperatures in the Sierra Neva
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PreventionCut fossil fueluse (espec
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taxes on carbon emissions or fuel u
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What Can You Do?Reducing CO 2 Emiss
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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluo
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ozone in the stratosphere. From a h
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Abundance (parts per trillion)INDIV
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22 WaterPollutionWaterPollutionCont
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Table 22-2 Common Diseases Transmit
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Because point sources are at specif
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veloped countries. Two causes of th
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Nitrogen compoundsproduced by carsa
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ties of acids, pesticides, and othe
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ern India drink groundwater contami
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100 kilometers (62 miles) of the co
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Dumping industrial waste off U.S. c
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The key to protecting oceans is to
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PrimarySecondaryGritBar screen cham
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where bacteria break down remaining
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Officials are working to find ways
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but
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A weed is a plant whose virtues hav
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veloped countries, but use in devel
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U.S. Department of Agricultureresis
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What Goes Around CanCome AroundU.S.
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our bodies, and we should be concer
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U.S. Department of AgricultureAgric
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and opposition from agricultural ch
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Solid wastes are only raw materials
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24-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTEWhat Are O
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PharmaceuticalplantSludgeLocal farm
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matter and energy resources, cuts p
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Reduces globalwarmingReduces acidde
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xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should househo
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Disposalwaste, pollutionUsebleach,d
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What Are the Advantages and Disadva
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What Harmful Chemicals Are in Your
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icals. Scientists are testing the u
Page 549 and 550:
Most hazardous waste in the United
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PreventionPhase out leadedgasoline
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EPA advised women who may become pr
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When they can be found, responsible
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out use of these chemicals and to d
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25 SustainableCitiesBiodiversityEne
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Karachi10.4 million16.2 millionDhak
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Image provided courtesy of theU.S.
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InputsOutputsEnergyFoodWaterRawmate
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Despite joblessness, squalor, overc
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day—and injure another 15 million
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T rade-OffsMass Transit RailT rade-
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area (Figure 25-7) between 1862 and
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MajorhighwaysGreenbeltUrban centerS
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powered motorcycles by 2007, and is
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26 andEconomics, Environment,Sustai
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price matches what buyers are willi
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SunEARTHFigure 26-4 Ecological econ
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CostHighLowOptimum pollutionclean-u
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onment, their flow rates through th
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cluding costs, as much as possible,
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• Decreases depletion and degrada
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Should We Rely More on Tradable Pol
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Figure 26-14 Data on the global dis
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Microloans to the PoorMost of thewo
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Sunset BusinessesCoal miningOil pro
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27 andPolitics, Environment,Sustain
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ness, and environmental leaders and
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Leaders are persons whom other peop
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issue as the key to making governme
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LobbyistsLobbyistsLawmaking bodyPub
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19691970197119721973197419751976197
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noise to certain levels or to elimi
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The spearhead of the global conserv
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Such audits have resulted in numero
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natural capital. According to envir
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Speth and several other national an
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■ Open all discussions and findin
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7. Explain why you agree or disagre
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The main ingredients of an environm
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global economy with minimal governm
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What Is the Environmental WisdomWor
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onmental education. They cite some
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What Are Our Basic Needs?Obviously,
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new relationship with the earth tha
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APPENDIX 1UNITS OF MEASURELENGTHMet
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1930s 1940s 1950s1938 Federal Food,
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1970s1971Biologist BarryCommonerpub
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1991-2000Continuing efforts by anti
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OHcommon covalent compounds, formed
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A PPENDIX 4CLASSIFYING AND NAMING S
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GLOSSARYabiotic Nonliving. Compare
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CFCsSee chlorofluorocarbons.chain r
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timeters (10 inches) a year. Such a
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eutrophication Physical, chemical,
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high-throughput economy The situati
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distribution facilities. Compare hu
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and with atoms of one or more other
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adioactive decay Change of a radioi
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soil permeability Rate at which wat
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transmissible disease A disease tha
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Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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