Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability 1

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Cut 2Cut 1a. Selective Cutting b. Shelterwood Cuttingc. Seed-Tree Cutting d. Clear-Cuttinge. Strip CuttingUncutCut6–10 years agoCut3–5 years agoCut1 year agoUncutFigure 11-10 Tree harvesting methods.202 CHAPTER 11 Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: Managing and Protecting Ecosystems
AdvantagesHigher timberyieldsMaximumeconomic returnin shortest timeCan reforest withgeneticallyimproved fastgrowingtreesShort time toestablish newstand of treesNeeds less skilland planningBest way toharvest treeplantationsGood for treespecies needingfull or moderatesunlight forgrowthT rade-OffsClear-Cutting ForestsDisadvantagesReducesbiodiversityDisruptsecosystemprocessesDestroys andfragments somewildlife habitatsLeaves moderateto large openingsIncreases soilerosionIncreases sedimentwater pollution andflooding whendone on steepslopesEliminates mostrecreational valuefor severaldecadesFigure 11-11 Trade-offs: advantages and disadvantages ofclear-cutting forests. Pick the single advantage and disadvantagethat you think are the most important.a strip of trees along the contour of the land, with thecorridor narrow enough to allow natural regenerationwithin a few years. After regeneration, loggers cut anotherstrip above the first, and so on. This allows clearcuttingof a forest in narrow strips over severaldecades with minimal damage.What Are the Harmful EnvironmentalEffects of Deforestation? BiodiversityLoss and Climate ChangeCutting down large forest areas reduces biodiversityand the ecological services forests provide and cancontribute to regional and global climate change.Deforestation is the temporary or permanent removalof large expanses of forest for agriculture or other uses.Harvesting timber and fuelwood from forests providesmany economic benefits (Figure 11-7, right). However,deforestation can have many harmful environmentaleffects (Figure 11-12) that can reduce the ecological servicesprovided by forests (Figure 11-7, left).If left alone long enough, forests that have beenlogged or converted to cropland can revert to secondgrowthand even old-growth forests through secondaryecological succession. But this is not alwaysthe case. If deforestation occurs over a large enougharea, it can cause a region’s climate to become hotterand drier and prevent the return of a forest.Deforestation can also contribute to projectedglobal warming if trees are removed faster than theygrow back. When forests are cleared for agriculture orother purposes and burned the carbon stored in thetrees’ biomass is released into the atmosphere as thegreenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Research indicatesthat when an old-growth forest is cut, it takes atleast 200 years for a replacement forest to accumulatethe same amount of carbon stored in the original forest.What Is Happening to the World’s Forests?Mixed NewsHuman activities have reduced the earth’s forestcover by 20–50% and deforestation is continuing at afairly rapid rate, except in most temperate forests inNorth America and Europe.Global estimates of forest cover change are difficult tomake because of lack of satellite and radar data, unmonitoredland-use change, and different definitionsof what constitutes a forest. But forest surveys are improvingbecause of better satellite data.Natural Capital DegradationDeforestation• Decreased soil fertility from erosion• Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems• Premature extinction of species withspecialized niches• Loss of habitat for migratory species such asbirds and butterflies• Regional climate change from extensive clearing• Releases CO 2 into atmosphere from burningand tree decay• Accelerates floodingFigure 11-12 Natural capital degradation: harmful environmentaleffects of deforestation that can reduce the ecologicalservices provided by forests. Which two of these effects do youthink are the most serious?http://biology.brookscole.com/miller14203
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1Environmental Problems, TheirCause
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AirSOLAR ENERGYRESOURCESWaterEnergy
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changes that lead to an increasingl
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take the resources of 1.15 planet e
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Causes of Environmental Problems•
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Developing Countriesxx=Population (
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■ We should encourage earth-susta
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2. Write two-page scenarios describ
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A continent ages quickly once we co
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Good NewsMore foodSupported alarger
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Figure 2-8 Theodore (“Teddy”)Ro
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What Happened during the 1970s? The
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on which they and their ancestors h
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Science is an adventure of the huma
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CTIONSWhat Is Harmingthe Robins?Sup
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After building and testing a mathem
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I am going to give you a brief intr
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Figure 3-6 The pH scale, used to me
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The different molecules of DNA that
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Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2
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aluminum foil. When solid water (ic
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nn23592 UUranium-235nucleus9236Kr14
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SolarenergyChemicalenergy(photosynt
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number of resource users. In other
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The earth’s thin film of living m
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(a) Eukaryotic CellNucleus(informat
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AtmosphereVegetationBiosphereand an
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Coastal chaparraland scrubConiferou
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NoorganismsLower limitof toleranceF
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Detritus feedersDecomposersLong-hor
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First TrophicLevelSecond TrophicLev
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Figure 4-20 Generalized pyramid of
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Terrestrial EcosystemsSwamps and ma
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every handful of topsoil break down
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suited for plant growth. It has a t
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Figure 4-29 Naturalcapital: simplif
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wildlife habitats, alter temperatur
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miningFertilizerexcretionuptake bya
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How Are Human Activities Affecting
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For example, people visit degraded
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There is grandeur to this view of l
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According to the theory of evolutio
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Black skimmerseizes small fishat wa
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5-4 SPECIATION, EXTINCTION,AND BIOD
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Scientists have also identified per
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Identify and extractgene with desir
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infrared radiation, as a rattlesnak
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To do science is to search for repe
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figure. Scientists hypothesize that
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ArcticCircleTropic ofCancerNorth Pa
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Winds can also affect regionalclima
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FPO(a) Rays of sunlight penetrateth
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ColdPolarTundraSubpolarDecreasing t
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Figure 6-20 Natural capital:some co
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Beisa oryxCape buffaloWildebeestTop
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Figure 6-25 Natural capitaldegradat
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Natural Capital DegradationGrasslan
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4540HarpyeagleEmergentlayer35Tocoto
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with sunlight available only 6-8 ho
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Natural Capital DegradationWhen we
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If there is magic on this planet, i
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there. Photosynthesis cannot take p
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Figure 7-7 View of an estuary taken
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Rocky Shore BeachSea starHermit cra
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Figure 7-12 Natural capital:some co
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EcologicalServicesClimatemoderation
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In warm months the bottom layer of
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According to scientists, we urgentl
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Animal and vegetable life is too co
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HighHighHighRate of immigrationor e
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mostly on land and eat insects that
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According to this hypothesis, musse
Page 148 and 149: Many people—influenced by movies
Page 150 and 151: strychnine, peyote, nicotine, and r
Page 152 and 153: It is tempting to think of mutualis
Page 155 and 156: How Do Species Replace One Another
Page 157 and 158: By contrast, grasslands are much le
Page 159 and 160: 9Population EcologyPopulationContro
Page 161 and 162: The size of a population that inclu
Page 163 and 164: Number of reindeer2,0001,5001,00050
Page 165 and 166: Reproductive individuals in populat
Page 167 and 168: Percentage surviving (log scale)100
Page 169 and 170: A third type of alteration is using
Page 171 and 172: In the next chapter we will apply t
Page 173 and 174: The problems to be faced are vast a
Page 175 and 176: ates affect a country’s populatio
Page 177 and 178: United States Mexico CanadaPopulati
Page 179 and 180: and a high incidence of infectious
Page 181 and 182: Age100+95-9990-9485-8980-8475-7970-
Page 183 and 184: Age Distribution (%)403530252015105
Page 185 and 186: 80Stage 1PreindustrialStage 2Transi
Page 187 and 188: also make up 70% of the world’s p
Page 189 and 190: Such experience also suggests that
Page 191 and 192: Forests precede civilizations, dese
Page 193 and 194: The Species ApproachGoalProtect spe
Page 195 and 196: parkways, trails, rivers, seashores
Page 197: Weak treesremovedFigure 11-8 Short
Page 201 and 202: trees no faster than they are reple
Page 203 and 204: Sudden oak death White pine blister
Page 205 and 206: vere forest fires for two reasons.
Page 207 and 208: and degradation practices, Brazil
Page 209 and 210: SolutionsSustaining Tropical Forest
Page 211 and 212: • Integrate plans for managing pa
Page 213 and 214: Should Reserves Be as Large as Poss
Page 215 and 216: Figure 11-24 Endangered natural cap
Page 217 and 218: ity of ecosystems well enough to re
Page 219 and 220: original state? How much of it shou
Page 221 and 222: The last word in ignorance is the p
Page 223 and 224: Florida manatee Northern spotted ow
Page 225 and 226: each of these three species estimat
Page 227 and 228: BiophiliaBiologist EdwardO. Wilson
Page 229 and 230: Island species, many of them endemi
Page 231 and 232: Deliberately Introduced SpeciesPurp
Page 233 and 234: The Termite from HellForget killer
Page 235 and 236: © Karl Ammann. Biosynergy Institut
Page 237 and 238: tional Trade in Endangered Species
Page 239 and 240: Most people would say yes. The prob
Page 241 and 242: the act allows for economic concern
Page 243 and 244: ity, with the aim of reintroducing
Page 245 and 246: The Department of Defense controls
Page 247 and 248: 13 SustainingAquatic BiodiversityBi
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CobiaHogfishKelpCarrageenPacific sa
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peated scraping. Slow-growing, long
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control approach and to be sure the
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(CITES), the 1979 Global Treaty on
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Beetle car, and some of its arterie
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What Role Can ReconciliationEcology
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eries. When it works, community-bas
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GULF OFMEXICOAgricultural areaTreat
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water withdrawal for irrigation. An
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SolutionsRebuilding Salmon Populati
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14 Foodand Soil ResourcesSoilBiodiv
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Industrialized agricultureShifting
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First green revolution(developed co
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Low-Tech Sustainable Agriculture in
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According to the U.S. Department of
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OvergrazingDeforestationErosionCaus
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(a) Terracing(b) Contour planting a
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2,000400Grain production(millions o
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People who are underfed and underwe
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14-6 INCREASING CROPPRODUCTIONWhat
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sistence farmers in developing coun
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capita meat production more than do
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A more expensive and less widely us
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Spotter airplaneFish farmingin cage
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estuaries. Then the fish are releas
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Currently, organic farming is used
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15 WaterResourcesWaterCASE STUDYWat
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physically connects us to one anoth
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Groundwater normally moves from poi
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and wildlife could trigger “water
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city’s water systems have been ta
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for the dams and reservoirs and has
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has devastated the area’s fishing
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Aquifers provide drinking water for
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WYOMINGCOLORADONEW MEXICOSOUTH DAKO
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Mohamed El-Ashry of the World Resou
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water waste by about 84% while irri
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15-8 TOO MUCH WATERWhat Causes Floo
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gradually. Another way to reduce fl
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16 MineralGeology and NonrenewableR
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AbyssalhillsAbyssalfloorOceanicridg
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usually rides up over the denser oc
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cant (less than 4.0 on the Richter
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ported from their sources by water,
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How Are Buried Mineral DepositsRemo
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16-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTSOF USING
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Separationof ore fromgangueMetal or
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Some analysts contend that all we n
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Can We Find Substitutes for ScarceN
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Typical citizens of advanced indust
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Figure 17-5 shows energy consumptio
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Currently, oil has a high net energ
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ArcticOceanCoalPrince WilliamSoundG
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Oil (million barrels per day)120100
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Coal-firedelectricitySynthetic oil
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Burning natural gas emits CO 2 but
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Trade-OffsCoalxHOW WOULD YOU VOTE?
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Small amounts ofradioactive gasesUr
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After more than 50 years of develop
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CoalAmple supplyHigh net energyyiel
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corrode and release their radioacti
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out the entire rail or truck trip i
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manently in 1998. Because of this e
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18 andEnergy EfficiencyRenewable En
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Energy Inputs System Outputs86%8%3%
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source. These systems have an energ
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ABCombustion engine:Small, efficien
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Atlanta’s 13-story Georgia Power
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Net Energy EfficiencySuperinsulated
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Why Are We Still Wasting So Much En
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How Can We Cool Houses Naturally? I
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AdvantagesFairly high netenergyWork
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The DOE calls the Great Plains stat
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AdvantagesLarge potentialsupply in
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surface. Researchers in several cou
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Primary EnergySourcesHydrogenProduc
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Bioenergy power plantsWind farmSmal
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Nuclear energy(fission and fusion)$
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19 andRisk, Toxicology,Human Health
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Number of individuals affectedVerys
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How Can We Estimate the Toxicity of
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dosage. With the threshold dose-res
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HormoneEstrogenlike chemicalAntiand
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19-4 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS:DISEASE IN
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A typical virus consists of a shell
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For example, the West Nile virus ha
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eggs4. Parasite invadesblood cells,
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AgentContagiousSymptomsMortality(if
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Cause of DeathAnnual DeathsPoverty/
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■ How should limited funds be spe
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20 AirPollutionAirPopulationPolluti
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layer of rising and falling air cur
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Air Pollution in the Past: The Bad
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tems, most scientists say that it m
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UltrafineParticlesSea salt nucleiFi
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Warmer airInversion layerIncreasing
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4.75.45.14.75.25.35.35.55.95.54.75.
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when the soil pH falls below 5.1. E
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educe or eliminate emissions of SO
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FurnaceSlabSoilClothesdryerRadon-22
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How Many People Die Prematurely fro
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plant expansions, or sell them to o
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Cleaned gasElectrodesCleaned gasDir
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PreventionCover ceiling tilesand li
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21 andClimate ChangeOzone LossClima
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Average surface temperature (°C)Av
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380410Concentration of carbon dioxi
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Table 21-2 Major Characteristics of
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are dying because the permafrost un
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CellCloudsLandOceanAccording to the
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They suggest that this indicates th
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Agriculture• Shifts in food-growi
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ter temperatures in the Sierra Neva
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PreventionCut fossil fueluse (espec
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taxes on carbon emissions or fuel u
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What Can You Do?Reducing CO 2 Emiss
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Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluo
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ozone in the stratosphere. From a h
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Abundance (parts per trillion)INDIV
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22 WaterPollutionWaterPollutionCont
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Table 22-2 Common Diseases Transmit
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Because point sources are at specif
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veloped countries. Two causes of th
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Nitrogen compoundsproduced by carsa
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ties of acids, pesticides, and othe
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ern India drink groundwater contami
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100 kilometers (62 miles) of the co
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Dumping industrial waste off U.S. c
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The key to protecting oceans is to
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PrimarySecondaryGritBar screen cham
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where bacteria break down remaining
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Officials are working to find ways
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It is a hard truth to swallow, but
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A weed is a plant whose virtues hav
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veloped countries, but use in devel
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U.S. Department of Agricultureresis
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What Goes Around CanCome AroundU.S.
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our bodies, and we should be concer
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U.S. Department of AgricultureAgric
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and opposition from agricultural ch
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Solid wastes are only raw materials
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24-2 PRODUCING LESS WASTEWhat Are O
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PharmaceuticalplantSludgeLocal farm
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matter and energy resources, cuts p
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Reduces globalwarmingReduces acidde
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xHOW WOULD YOU VOTE? Should househo
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Disposalwaste, pollutionUsebleach,d
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What Are the Advantages and Disadva
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What Harmful Chemicals Are in Your
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icals. Scientists are testing the u
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Most hazardous waste in the United
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PreventionPhase out leadedgasoline
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EPA advised women who may become pr
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When they can be found, responsible
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out use of these chemicals and to d
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25 SustainableCitiesBiodiversityEne
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Karachi10.4 million16.2 millionDhak
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Image provided courtesy of theU.S.
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InputsOutputsEnergyFoodWaterRawmate
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Despite joblessness, squalor, overc
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day—and injure another 15 million
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T rade-OffsMass Transit RailT rade-
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area (Figure 25-7) between 1862 and
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MajorhighwaysGreenbeltUrban centerS
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powered motorcycles by 2007, and is
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26 andEconomics, Environment,Sustai
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price matches what buyers are willi
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SunEARTHFigure 26-4 Ecological econ
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CostHighLowOptimum pollutionclean-u
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onment, their flow rates through th
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cluding costs, as much as possible,
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• Decreases depletion and degrada
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Should We Rely More on Tradable Pol
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Figure 26-14 Data on the global dis
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Microloans to the PoorMost of thewo
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Sunset BusinessesCoal miningOil pro
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27 andPolitics, Environment,Sustain
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ness, and environmental leaders and
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Leaders are persons whom other peop
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issue as the key to making governme
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LobbyistsLobbyistsLawmaking bodyPub
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19691970197119721973197419751976197
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noise to certain levels or to elimi
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The spearhead of the global conserv
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Such audits have resulted in numero
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natural capital. According to envir
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Speth and several other national an
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■ Open all discussions and findin
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7. Explain why you agree or disagre
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The main ingredients of an environm
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global economy with minimal governm
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What Is the Environmental WisdomWor
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onmental education. They cite some
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What Are Our Basic Needs?Obviously,
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new relationship with the earth tha
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APPENDIX 1UNITS OF MEASURELENGTHMet
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1930s 1940s 1950s1938 Federal Food,
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1970s1971Biologist BarryCommonerpub
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1991-2000Continuing efforts by anti
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OHcommon covalent compounds, formed
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A PPENDIX 4CLASSIFYING AND NAMING S
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GLOSSARYabiotic Nonliving. Compare
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CFCsSee chlorofluorocarbons.chain r
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timeters (10 inches) a year. Such a
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eutrophication Physical, chemical,
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high-throughput economy The situati
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distribution facilities. Compare hu
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and with atoms of one or more other
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adioactive decay Change of a radioi
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soil permeability Rate at which wat
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transmissible disease A disease tha
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