Title: Alternative Sweeteners

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Tagatose 125 In conclusion, tagatose has three major areas of application: 1. Low-calorie bulk sweetener: Based on a significantly lower caloric value than sucrose, yet having a similar level of sweetness and similar physical bulking structure, tagatose can be used as a low-calorie bulk sweetener, replacing sugar and other sweeteners in different applications at different dose levels. 2. Prebiotic sweetener: Replacing sucrose in various applications and adding a prebiotic benefit. 3. Flavor enhancer: Tagatose added to sweetening systems based on potent sweeteners or high-intensity sweeteners such as aspartame alone or combinations of aspartame and acesulfame potassium improves the flavor profile and the mouth-feel. VII. TOXICOLOGY AND REGULATORY ASPECTS Arla Foods Ingredients amba is currently seeking its self-affirmed GRAS status for d-tagatose in the United States. All relevant studies to document the safety of tagatose have been performed at FDA-approved research institutes. The key articles documenting the safety of d-tagatose appear in the April 1999 issue of Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. The FDA has approved the use of a factor of 1.5 kcal/g for calculating the caloric value of tagatose. VIII. CONCLUSION With its broad range of properties, tagatose has a unique application profile and is set to be one of the major low-calorie bulk sweeteners of the future. REFERENCES 1. EL Hirst, L Hough, JKN Jones. Composition of the gum of Sterculia setigera: Occurrence of d-tagatose in nature. Nature 163(4135):177, 1949. 2. E Troyano, I Martinez-Castro, A Olano. Kinetics of galactose and tagatose formation during heat-treatment of milk. Food Chem 45:41–43, 1992. 3. G Crouzoulon. Les proprietes cinetiques du flux d’entree du fructose a travers la bordure en brosse du jejunum du rat. Arch Int Physiol Biochim 86:725–740, 1978. 4. K Sigrist-Nelson, U Hopfer. A distinct d-fructose transport system in isolated brush border membrane. Biochim Biophys Acta 367:247–254, 1974.
126 Bertelsen et al. 5. JP Saunders, LR Zehner, GV Levin. Disposition of d-[U- 14 C]-tagatose in the rat. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 29:S46–S56, 1999. 6. HN Lærke, BB Jensen. d-Tagatose has low small intestinal digestibility but high large intestinal fermentability in pigs. J Nutr 129:1002–1009, 1999. 7. A Bar. Factorial calculation model for the estimation of the physiological caloric value of polyols. In: N Hosoya, ed. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Caloric Evaluation of Carbohydrates. Tokyo: The Japan Assoc. Dietetic & Enriched Foods, 1990, pp 209–252. 8. GV Levin, LR Zehner, JP Saunders, JR Beadle. Sugar substitutes: Their energy values, bulk characteristics, and potential health benefits. Am J Clin Nutr 62(suppl.): 1161S–1168S, 1995. 9. BB Jensen, A Laue. Absorption of d-tagatose and fermentation products of tagatose from the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. Internal report, 1998. 10. B Buemann, S Toubro, A Astrup. d-Tagatose, a stereoisomer of d-fructose increases hydrogen production in humans without affecting 24-hour energy expenditure, or respiratory exchange ratio. J Nutr 128:1481–1486, 1998. 11. R Rognstad. Pathway of gluconeogenesis from tagatose in rat hapatocytes. Arch Biochem Biophys 218(2):488–491, 1982. 12. HA Lardy. The influence of inorganic ions on phosphorylation reactions. In: WD McElroy, B. Glass, eds. Phosphorous Metabolism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1951, pp 477–499. 13. A Bar, BAR Lina, DMG de Groot, B de Bie, MJ Appel. Effect of d-tagatose on liver weight and glycogen content of rats. Reg Toxicol Pharmacol 29:S11–S28, 1999. 14. G Livesey, JC Brown. d-Tagatose is a bulk sweetener with zero energy determined in rats. J Nutr 126:1601–1609, 1996. 15. JP Saunders, GV Lewin, LR Zehner. Dietary d-tagatose lowers fat deposition and body weight gains of rats. Internal report, 1994. 16. H Jørgensen, HN Lærke. The influence of d-tagatose on digestibility and energy metabolism in pigs. Internal report, 1998. 17. T Donner, JF Wilber, D Ostrowski. d-Tagatose: A novel therapeutic adjunct for non-insulin dependent diabetes. Diabetes 45 (suppl. 2):125a, 1996. 18. B Buemann, S Toubro, JJ Holst, JF Rehfeld, A Astrup. d-Tagatose, a stereoisomer of d-fructose increases blood uric acid concentration. Metabolism, 49(8):969–976, 2000. 19. University of Zurich. Telemetric evaluation of d-tagatose provided by MD Foods Ingredients Amba, with regard to the product’s qualification as being ‘‘safe for teeth.’’ Zurich: Dental Institute, Clinic of Preventive Dentistry, Periodontology and Cariology Bioelectronic Unit, 1996. 20. IT Johnson. Butyrate and markers of neoplastic change in the colon. Eur J Cancer Prev 4:365–371, 1995. 21. OC Velázquez, HW Lederer, JL Rombeau. Butyrate and the colonocyte: Implications for neoplasia. Dig Dis Sci 41(4):727–739, 1996. 22. HN Johansen, BB Jensen. Recovery of energy as SCFA after microbial fermentation of d-tagatose (abstr). Int J Obes 21(suppl. 2):S50, 1997. 23. H Bertelsen, BB Jensen, B Buemann. d-Tagatose—A novel low calorie bulk sweetener with prebiotic properties. World Rev Nutr Dietetics 85:00, 1999.
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ISBN: 0-8247-0437-1 This book is pr
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iv Preface these sweeteners are bei
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vi Contents 7. Tagatose 105 Hans Be
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Contributors Sue E. Andress The Nut
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Contributors xi Carolyn M. Merkel M
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1 Alternative Sweeteners: An Overvi
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Overview 3 II. RELATIVE SWEETNESS P
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Overview 5 IV. INTERNATIONAL REGULA
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Overview 7 V. U.S. REGULATION OF SW
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Overview 9 General recognition of s
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Overview 11 the maximum dietary lev
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2 Acesulfame K Gert-Wolfhard von Ry
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Acesulfame K 15 Figure 3 Acesulfame
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Acesulfame K 17 Figure 4 Sweetness
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Acesulfame K 19 The acute oral toxi
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Acesulfame K 21 Table 2 Stability o
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Acesulfame K 23 were preferred over
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Acesulfame K 25 losses during bakin
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Acesulfame K 27 All methods describ
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Acesulfame K 29 24. Report of the S
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3 Alitame Michael H. Auerbach Danis
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Alitame 33 IV. SOLUBILITY At the is
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Alitame 35 Figure 3 Alitame and asp
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Alitame 37 Figure 5 Metabolism of a
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Alitame 39 autonomic, gastrointesti
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4 Aspartame Harriett H. Butchko, W.
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Aspartame 43 Figure 2 Principal con
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Aspartame 45 A wide range exists ov
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Aspartame 47 Figure 4 Dietary intak
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Aspartame 49 day for 60-kg adults (
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Aspartame 51 mood, and behavior (88
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Aspartame 53 VI. WORLDWIDE REGULATO
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Aspartame 55 30. A Bar, C Biermann.
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Aspartame 57 67. HH Butchko, C Tsch
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Aspartame 59 104. AF Stokes, A Belg
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Aspartame 61 144. D Squillacote. As
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64 Bopp and Price Figure 1 Structur
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66 Bopp and Price Table 1 Regulator
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68 Bopp and Price V. ADMIXTURE POTE
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70 Bopp and Price and thickeners (1
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72 Bopp and Price XII. METABOLISM C
Page 87 and 88: 74 Bopp and Price sodium cyclamate
Page 89 and 90: 76 Bopp and Price ied during the pa
Page 91 and 92: 78 Bopp and Price the studies invol
Page 93 and 94: 80 Bopp and Price 0.42 µg/ml and w
Page 95 and 96: 82 Bopp and Price 4. U.S. Patent No
Page 97 and 98: 84 Bopp and Price 48. SM Sieber, RH
Page 100 and 101: 6 Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone Fra
Page 102 and 103: Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 89 Fi
Page 104 and 105: Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 91 Fi
Page 106 and 107: Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 93 in
Page 108 and 109: Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 95 ot
Page 110 and 111: Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 97 Ta
Page 112 and 113: Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 99 th
Page 114 and 115: Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 101 c
Page 116 and 117: Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 103 5
Page 118 and 119: 7 Tagatose Hans Bertelsen and Søre
Page 120 and 121: Tagatose 107 the same type of Food
Page 122 and 123: Tagatose 109 in pigs according to m
Page 124 and 125: Tagatose 111 IV. USE OF D-TAGATOSE
Page 126 and 127: Tagatose 113 rinsing periods or dur
Page 128 and 129: Tagatose 115 anaerobic bacterial fe
Page 130 and 131: Tagatose 117 The intestines of both
Page 132 and 133: Tagatose 119 Table 1 Relative Sweet
Page 134 and 135: Tagatose 121 D. Hygroscopicity Taga
Page 136 and 137: Tagatose 123 Table 2 Heat of Soluti
Page 140: Tagatose 127 24. BB Jensen, B Buema
Page 143 and 144: 130 Stargel et al. Figure 1 Compari
Page 145 and 146: 132 Stargel et al. Figure 2 Matrix
Page 147 and 148: 134 Stargel et al. ness of neotame
Page 149 and 150: 136 Stargel et al. Figure 4 Taste p
Page 151 and 152: 138 Stargel et al. Table 1 Solubili
Page 153 and 154: 140 Stargel et al. study strains in
Page 155 and 156: 142 Stargel et al. to 10,000 µg/pl
Page 157 and 158: 144 Stargel et al. for general use
Page 160 and 161: 9 Saccharin Ronald L. Pearson PMC S
Page 162 and 163: Saccharin 149 proved for use in the
Page 164 and 165: Saccharin 151 was added to sodium d
Page 166 and 167: Saccharin 153 Table 2 Economics of
Page 168 and 169: Saccharin 155 Table 4 Saccharin Adm
Page 170 and 171: Table 6 Flavor Profile and Cost Com
Page 172 and 173: Saccharin 159 Figure 5 Hydrolysis o
Page 174 and 175: Saccharin 161 malian repellant (52,
Page 176 and 177: Saccharin 163 REFERENCES 1. GE DuBo
Page 178: Saccharin 165 67. GP Schoenig, et a
Page 181 and 182: 168 Kinghorn et al. herbarium speci
Page 183 and 184: 170 Kinghorn et al. Figure 1 Struct
Page 185 and 186: 172 Kinghorn et al. V. USE AND ADMI
Page 187 and 188: 174 Kinghorn et al. sulting in the
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176 Kinghorn et al. Figure 2 Struct
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178 Kinghorn et al. iol administere
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180 Kinghorn et al. cus mutans, or
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182 Kinghorn et al. a natural sweet
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11 Sucralose Leslie A. Goldsmith an
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Sucralose 187 Figure 2 Sweeteness i
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Sucralose 189 cant difference was f
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Sucralose 191 fructose, and/or insu
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Sucralose 193 Figure 4 Sucralose so
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Sucralose 195 Figure 6 Viscosities
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Sucralose 197 Table 2 Sucralose Int
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Sucralose 199 tively, compared with
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Sucralose 201 Figure 10 Breakdown o
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Sucralose 203 Table 3 Percent Mass
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Sucralose 205 Table 4 Initial Appli
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Sucralose 207 4. Sucralose Safety A
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210 Kinghorn and Compadre establish
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212 Kinghorn and Compadre grosvenor
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214 Kinghorn and Compadre form. Phy
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216 Kinghorn and Compadre of the de
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218 Kinghorn and Compadre Figure 5
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226 Kinghorn and Compadre sweet tas
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230 Kinghorn and Compadre 5. O Tana
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232 Kinghorn and Compadre 41. S Nir
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13 Erythritol Milda E. Embuscado an
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Erythritol 237 The commercial produ
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Table 2 Properties of Erythritol Co
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Erythritol 241 used to obtain the d
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Erythritol 243 crose stabilized and
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Erythritol 245 Figure 4 (A) Rate of
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Table 6 Assessment Criteria for the
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Table 7 Summary of Pivotal Toxicity
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Erythritol 251 VI. FOOD AND PHARMAC
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Erythritol 253 5. C Servo, J Pabo,
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14 Hydrogenated Starch Hydrolysates
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Figure 1 (a) Chemical structures fo
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Hydrogenated Starch Hydrolysates an
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15 Isomalt Marie-Christel Wijers* P
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Isomalt 267 GPM depends on the isom
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Isomalt 269 IV. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PR
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Isomalt 271 temperature than sucros
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Isomalt 273 C. Diabetics A number o
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Isomalt 275 Figure 7 Changes in wei
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Isomalt 277 C. Chewing Gum Sticks,
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Isomalt 279 isomalt is significantl
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Isomalt 281 der Sorbit-Toleranz ges
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16 Maltitol Kazuaki Kato Towa Chemi
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Maltitol 285 Like the other polyols
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Maltitol 287 of shape over time), h
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Maltitol 289 results of this confer
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Maltitol 291 available on certain p
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Maltitol 293 Table 3 Worldwide Stat
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Maltitol 295 alcohol. Unpublished r
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298 Mesters et al. Figure 1 The che
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300 Mesters et al. rium and equal m
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302 Mesters et al. sugars are then
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304 Mesters et al. Figure 2 Telemet
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306 Mesters et al. Figure 3 Moistur
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308 Mesters et al. Figure 6 Viscosi
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310 Mesters et al. tose are the mai
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312 Mesters et al. Figure 8 The wat
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314 Mesters et al. food containing
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18 Sorbitol and Mannitol Anh S. Le
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 319 Figure 2
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Table 1 Physical Properties of the
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 323 Figure 4
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 325 bases are
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 327 is used a
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 329 ‘‘cap
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 331 that mann
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 333 Mannitol
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19 Xylitol Philip M. Olinger Polyol
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Xylitol 337 Milled forms of xylitol
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Xylitol 339 Table 2 Solubility of S
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Xylitol 341 tol in a fluoride tooth
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Xylitol 343 The recognition of xyli
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Xylitol 345 tion of the availabilit
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Xylitol 347 grow and metabolize opt
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Xylitol 349 VIII. USE OF XYLITOL AS
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Xylitol 351 IX. USE OF XYLITOL IN P
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Xylitol 353 Human tolerance of high
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Xylitol 355 29. CS Gong, TA Claypoo
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Xylitol 357 71. JDB Featherstone, T
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Xylitol 359 112. JS Van der Hoeven.
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Xylitol 361 tans omz 176 by xylitol
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Xylitol 363 BL Horecker, K Lang, Y
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Xylitol 365 of Certain Food Additiv
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368 White and Osberger II. MANUFACT
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370 White and Osberger scribe impro
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372 White and Osberger Figure 1 Cyc
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374 White and Osberger When asparta
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376 White and Osberger Table 5 Temp
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378 White and Osberger Figure 3 Met
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380 White and Osberger Figure 5 Com
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382 White and Osberger Table 6 Glyc
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384 White and Osberger Table 8 Low-
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386 White and Osberger F. Confectio
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388 White and Osberger In 1993, Vui
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390 White and Osberger 18. AL Forbe
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392 Buck Table 1 Market Division be
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394 Buck Table 3 World HFS Consumpt
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396 Buck Figure 3 Production of 42%
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398 Buck Table 4 Typical Characteri
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400 Buck Table 5 Effect of Temperat
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402 Buck Table 7 International Soci
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404 Buck Because of the high purity
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406 Buck VII. APPLICATIONS HFCS rep
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408 Buck is a benefit and in other
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410 Buck 1986. This evaluation conc
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22 Isomaltulose William E. Irwin* P
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Isomaltulose 415 Figure 2 Isosweet
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Isomaltulose 417 Figure 3 Solubilit
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Isomaltulose 419 Figure 6 Plasma in
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Isomaltulose 421 6. Dreissig VW, Lu
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424 Richards and Dexter various pla
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426 Richards and Dexter from assays
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428 Richards and Dexter desiccation
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430 Richards and Dexter 2. Taste Qu
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432 Richards and Dexter parative da
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434 Richards and Dexter Table 3 Com
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436 Richards and Dexter dissipate t
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438 Richards and Dexter unpublished
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440 Richards and Dexter IX. SHELF-L
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Figure 7 Egg white (95 g) was mixed
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444 Richards and Dexter Figure 10 B
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446 Richards and Dexter Figure 12 O
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448 Richards and Dexter Figure 14 T
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450 Richards and Dexter XIII. CARIO
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452 Richards and Dexter tions was s
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454 Richards and Dexter activity, a
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456 Richards and Dexter E. 14-day T
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458 Richards and Dexter 3. J Leibow
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460 Richards and Dexter 41. LM Crow
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24 Mixed Sweetener Functionality Ab
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Mixed Sweetener Functionality 465 2
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Mixed Sweetener Functionality 467 T
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Mixed Sweetener Functionality 471 F
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Mixed Sweetener Functionality 479 I
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25 Aspartame-Acesulfame: Twinsweet
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Aspartame-Acesulfame: Twinsweet 483
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26 Polydextrose Helen Mitchell Dani
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Polydextrose 501 Table 1 Approximat
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Polydextrose 503 at 25°C. Polydext
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Polydextrose 505 Figure 4 Hygroscop
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Polydextrose 507 Table 5 Functional
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Polydextrose 509 F. Fiber Polydextr
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Polydextrose 511 providing bulk, mo
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Polydextrose 513 H. Soft Candy The
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Polydextrose 515 B. International T
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Polydextrose 517 chemical and econo
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520 Deis I. FAT IS ESSENTIAL AND FU
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522 Deis Figure 1 Ingredient suppor
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524 Deis binding water, thus provid
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526 Deis The U.S. Department of Agr
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528 Deis stabilizer, thickener, or
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530 Deis mouth feel and rate of gel
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532 Deis Figure 4 Structure of glyc
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534 Deis Table 4 General Categories
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536 Deis ninths of the fat availabl
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538 Deis the same function in all f
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540 Deis 28. Anon. Glycerine: like
Page 555 and 556:
542 Index [Alitame] solubility, 33
Page 557 and 558:
544 Index [Erythritol] gastrointest
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546 Index [High fructose corn syrup
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548 Index Mogrosides, 211-213 prope
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550 Index [Polyols] isomalt, 265-28
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552 Index [Sucralose] safety, 189-1
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