Title: Alternative Sweeteners

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Polydextrose 509 F. Fiber Polydextrose conforms to the Japanese definition of a dietary fiber: ‘‘polysaccharides, related polymers and lignins, which are resistant to hydrolysis by the digestive enzymes of man’’ (14). The Japanese consumer has a particularly keen interest in supplementing his or her fiber intake as part of a desirable diet. In line with these factors, polydextrose has found a unique market in Japan for use in beverage products fortified with polydextrose as a soluble fiber (15). The fiber properties of polydextrose are reviewed in detail in the literature (16). Polydextrose may also be labeled fiber in Argentina, Egypt, Korea, Poland, and Taiwan. VI. APPLICATIONS Polydextrose has been accepted as a food additive by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (1). The original food additive petition included specific application in eight food categories. These categories are baked goods and mixes; chewing gum; confections and frostings; dressings; frozen dairy desserts; gelatins, puddings, and fillings; hard candy; and soft candy. These food categories are among those described in the Code of Federal Regulations (21 CFR 172.84). New categories have recently been approved. These include peanut spreads, syrups and toppings, sweet sauces, and fruit spreads. With the development of new forms of polydextrose and Litesse ® , it is now possible to choose a bulking agent that best fits the end-use application (see Table 3 for a summary of polydextrose and Litesse attributes). Selection of the appropriate Litesse form offers greater flexibility in terms of color, taste, and product claims (Litesse Ultra (III) is sugar free). Polydextrose may be used in the approved food categories to fulfill any of four functions: 1. Bulking agent—to provide bulk or substance to a food 2. Formulation aid—to promote or produce a desired physical state 3. Humectant—to promote retention of moisture 4. Texturizer—to affect the appearance or feel of the food A. Baked Goods This food category more specifically includes baked goods and baking mixes (restricted to fruit-, custard-, and pudding-filled pies, cakes, cookies, and similar baked products). A one-third calorie reduction in these products would require a fat and carbohydrate reduction, which would alter the physical and organoleptic acceptability of the baked good. Therefore, polydextrose plays a particularly important
510 Mitchell et al. role in the formulation of reduced-calorie baked goods (14, 18). In many baked goods formulations, polydextrose can be used without a high-intensity sweetener. Recent work reported on the good textural qualities of polydextrose shortbread cookies formulated with high-intensity sweeteners (19). For sweetness, the study evaluated synergistic combinations of aspartame, cyclamate, saccharin, and acesulfame-K in the cookies. The benefits of polydextrose in cake-type products include volume, tenderness, structure, and eating quality. Typical use levels in such products would be from 7 to 15% by weight. B. Chewing Gum Polydextrose can be used to make chewing gum with good shelf-life and elasticity. A high-intensity sweetener would be required to provide sweetness to the gum. Several patents exist for low-calorie gum products that cite the use of polydextrose (20, 21). C. Confections and Frostings This area of application represents products in which the functional properties of carbohydrates and fats are critical to the character of the food. Polydextrose is not crystalline, and therefore the crystalline/sugar texture cannot be achieved. The bulk and mouthfeel of taffylike products is more closely matched using polydextrose. Polydextrose use level would typically be in the range of 25%. D. Salad Dressings Many pourable salad dressings are surprisingly high in calories, containing up to 60–80 calories per tablespoon. Of their calories, approximately 80–95% come from fat (22). Therefore, making reduced-calorie dressing involves, primarily, reducing the oil level. Polydextrose finds use in this application by replacing the functionality and mouthfeel that was contributed by the fat. Some dressings do contain a significant level of sugar. Russian, thousand island, and French-style dressings are highest in sugar. These dressings are good candidates for the replacement of sucrose with polydextrose and a high-intensity sweetener. A number of highly palatable reduced-calorie dressings have been formulated with polydextrose and enjoy considerable success in the marketplace. E. Frozen Dairy Desserts This area of use typically involves the reduction of both fat and sugar in the formulation of reduced-calorie products (23). Sugar is a multipurpose ingredient
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ISBN: 0-8247-0437-1 This book is pr
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iv Preface these sweeteners are bei
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vi Contents 7. Tagatose 105 Hans Be
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Contributors Sue E. Andress The Nut
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Contributors xi Carolyn M. Merkel M
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1 Alternative Sweeteners: An Overvi
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Overview 3 II. RELATIVE SWEETNESS P
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Overview 5 IV. INTERNATIONAL REGULA
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Overview 7 V. U.S. REGULATION OF SW
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Overview 9 General recognition of s
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Overview 11 the maximum dietary lev
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2 Acesulfame K Gert-Wolfhard von Ry
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Acesulfame K 15 Figure 3 Acesulfame
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Acesulfame K 17 Figure 4 Sweetness
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Acesulfame K 19 The acute oral toxi
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Acesulfame K 21 Table 2 Stability o
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Acesulfame K 23 were preferred over
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Acesulfame K 25 losses during bakin
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Acesulfame K 27 All methods describ
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Acesulfame K 29 24. Report of the S
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3 Alitame Michael H. Auerbach Danis
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Alitame 33 IV. SOLUBILITY At the is
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Alitame 35 Figure 3 Alitame and asp
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Alitame 37 Figure 5 Metabolism of a
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Alitame 39 autonomic, gastrointesti
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4 Aspartame Harriett H. Butchko, W.
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Aspartame 43 Figure 2 Principal con
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Aspartame 45 A wide range exists ov
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Aspartame 47 Figure 4 Dietary intak
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Aspartame 49 day for 60-kg adults (
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Aspartame 51 mood, and behavior (88
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Aspartame 53 VI. WORLDWIDE REGULATO
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Aspartame 55 30. A Bar, C Biermann.
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Aspartame 57 67. HH Butchko, C Tsch
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Aspartame 59 104. AF Stokes, A Belg
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Aspartame 61 144. D Squillacote. As
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64 Bopp and Price Figure 1 Structur
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66 Bopp and Price Table 1 Regulator
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68 Bopp and Price V. ADMIXTURE POTE
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70 Bopp and Price and thickeners (1
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72 Bopp and Price XII. METABOLISM C
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74 Bopp and Price sodium cyclamate
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76 Bopp and Price ied during the pa
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78 Bopp and Price the studies invol
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80 Bopp and Price 0.42 µg/ml and w
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82 Bopp and Price 4. U.S. Patent No
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84 Bopp and Price 48. SM Sieber, RH
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6 Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone Fra
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 89 Fi
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 91 Fi
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 93 in
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 95 ot
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 97 Ta
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 99 th
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 101 c
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 103 5
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7 Tagatose Hans Bertelsen and Søre
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Tagatose 107 the same type of Food
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Tagatose 109 in pigs according to m
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Tagatose 111 IV. USE OF D-TAGATOSE
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Tagatose 113 rinsing periods or dur
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Tagatose 115 anaerobic bacterial fe
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Tagatose 117 The intestines of both
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Tagatose 119 Table 1 Relative Sweet
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Tagatose 121 D. Hygroscopicity Taga
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Tagatose 123 Table 2 Heat of Soluti
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Tagatose 125 In conclusion, tagatos
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Tagatose 127 24. BB Jensen, B Buema
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130 Stargel et al. Figure 1 Compari
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132 Stargel et al. Figure 2 Matrix
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134 Stargel et al. ness of neotame
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136 Stargel et al. Figure 4 Taste p
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138 Stargel et al. Table 1 Solubili
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140 Stargel et al. study strains in
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142 Stargel et al. to 10,000 µg/pl
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144 Stargel et al. for general use
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9 Saccharin Ronald L. Pearson PMC S
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Saccharin 149 proved for use in the
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Saccharin 151 was added to sodium d
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Saccharin 153 Table 2 Economics of
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Saccharin 155 Table 4 Saccharin Adm
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Table 6 Flavor Profile and Cost Com
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Saccharin 159 Figure 5 Hydrolysis o
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Saccharin 161 malian repellant (52,
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Saccharin 163 REFERENCES 1. GE DuBo
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Saccharin 165 67. GP Schoenig, et a
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168 Kinghorn et al. herbarium speci
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170 Kinghorn et al. Figure 1 Struct
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172 Kinghorn et al. V. USE AND ADMI
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174 Kinghorn et al. sulting in the
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176 Kinghorn et al. Figure 2 Struct
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178 Kinghorn et al. iol administere
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180 Kinghorn et al. cus mutans, or
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182 Kinghorn et al. a natural sweet
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11 Sucralose Leslie A. Goldsmith an
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Sucralose 187 Figure 2 Sweeteness i
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Sucralose 189 cant difference was f
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Sucralose 191 fructose, and/or insu
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Sucralose 193 Figure 4 Sucralose so
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Sucralose 195 Figure 6 Viscosities
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Sucralose 197 Table 2 Sucralose Int
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Sucralose 199 tively, compared with
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Sucralose 201 Figure 10 Breakdown o
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Sucralose 203 Table 3 Percent Mass
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Sucralose 205 Table 4 Initial Appli
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Sucralose 207 4. Sucralose Safety A
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210 Kinghorn and Compadre establish
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212 Kinghorn and Compadre grosvenor
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214 Kinghorn and Compadre form. Phy
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216 Kinghorn and Compadre of the de
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218 Kinghorn and Compadre Figure 5
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226 Kinghorn and Compadre sweet tas
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230 Kinghorn and Compadre 5. O Tana
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232 Kinghorn and Compadre 41. S Nir
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13 Erythritol Milda E. Embuscado an
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Erythritol 237 The commercial produ
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Table 2 Properties of Erythritol Co
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Erythritol 241 used to obtain the d
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Erythritol 243 crose stabilized and
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Erythritol 245 Figure 4 (A) Rate of
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Table 6 Assessment Criteria for the
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Table 7 Summary of Pivotal Toxicity
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Erythritol 251 VI. FOOD AND PHARMAC
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Erythritol 253 5. C Servo, J Pabo,
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14 Hydrogenated Starch Hydrolysates
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Figure 1 (a) Chemical structures fo
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Hydrogenated Starch Hydrolysates an
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15 Isomalt Marie-Christel Wijers* P
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Isomalt 267 GPM depends on the isom
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Isomalt 269 IV. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PR
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Isomalt 271 temperature than sucros
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Isomalt 273 C. Diabetics A number o
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Isomalt 275 Figure 7 Changes in wei
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Isomalt 277 C. Chewing Gum Sticks,
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Isomalt 279 isomalt is significantl
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Isomalt 281 der Sorbit-Toleranz ges
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16 Maltitol Kazuaki Kato Towa Chemi
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Maltitol 285 Like the other polyols
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Maltitol 287 of shape over time), h
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Maltitol 289 results of this confer
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Maltitol 291 available on certain p
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Maltitol 293 Table 3 Worldwide Stat
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Maltitol 295 alcohol. Unpublished r
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298 Mesters et al. Figure 1 The che
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300 Mesters et al. rium and equal m
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302 Mesters et al. sugars are then
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304 Mesters et al. Figure 2 Telemet
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306 Mesters et al. Figure 3 Moistur
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308 Mesters et al. Figure 6 Viscosi
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310 Mesters et al. tose are the mai
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312 Mesters et al. Figure 8 The wat
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314 Mesters et al. food containing
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18 Sorbitol and Mannitol Anh S. Le
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 319 Figure 2
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Table 1 Physical Properties of the
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 323 Figure 4
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 325 bases are
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 327 is used a
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 329 ‘‘cap
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 331 that mann
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Sorbitol and Mannitol 333 Mannitol
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19 Xylitol Philip M. Olinger Polyol
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Xylitol 337 Milled forms of xylitol
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Xylitol 339 Table 2 Solubility of S
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Xylitol 341 tol in a fluoride tooth
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Xylitol 343 The recognition of xyli
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Xylitol 345 tion of the availabilit
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Xylitol 347 grow and metabolize opt
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Xylitol 349 VIII. USE OF XYLITOL AS
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Xylitol 351 IX. USE OF XYLITOL IN P
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Xylitol 353 Human tolerance of high
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Xylitol 355 29. CS Gong, TA Claypoo
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Xylitol 357 71. JDB Featherstone, T
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Xylitol 359 112. JS Van der Hoeven.
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Xylitol 361 tans omz 176 by xylitol
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Xylitol 363 BL Horecker, K Lang, Y
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Xylitol 365 of Certain Food Additiv
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368 White and Osberger II. MANUFACT
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370 White and Osberger scribe impro
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372 White and Osberger Figure 1 Cyc
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374 White and Osberger When asparta
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376 White and Osberger Table 5 Temp
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378 White and Osberger Figure 3 Met
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380 White and Osberger Figure 5 Com
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382 White and Osberger Table 6 Glyc
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384 White and Osberger Table 8 Low-
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386 White and Osberger F. Confectio
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388 White and Osberger In 1993, Vui
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390 White and Osberger 18. AL Forbe
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392 Buck Table 1 Market Division be
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394 Buck Table 3 World HFS Consumpt
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396 Buck Figure 3 Production of 42%
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398 Buck Table 4 Typical Characteri
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400 Buck Table 5 Effect of Temperat
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402 Buck Table 7 International Soci
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404 Buck Because of the high purity
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406 Buck VII. APPLICATIONS HFCS rep
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408 Buck is a benefit and in other
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410 Buck 1986. This evaluation conc
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22 Isomaltulose William E. Irwin* P
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Isomaltulose 415 Figure 2 Isosweet
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Isomaltulose 417 Figure 3 Solubilit
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Isomaltulose 419 Figure 6 Plasma in
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Isomaltulose 421 6. Dreissig VW, Lu
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424 Richards and Dexter various pla
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426 Richards and Dexter from assays
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428 Richards and Dexter desiccation
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430 Richards and Dexter 2. Taste Qu
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432 Richards and Dexter parative da
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434 Richards and Dexter Table 3 Com
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436 Richards and Dexter dissipate t
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438 Richards and Dexter unpublished
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440 Richards and Dexter IX. SHELF-L
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Figure 7 Egg white (95 g) was mixed
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444 Richards and Dexter Figure 10 B
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446 Richards and Dexter Figure 12 O
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448 Richards and Dexter Figure 14 T
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450 Richards and Dexter XIII. CARIO
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452 Richards and Dexter tions was s
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454 Richards and Dexter activity, a
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456 Richards and Dexter E. 14-day T
Page 471 and 472: 458 Richards and Dexter 3. J Leibow
Page 473 and 474: 460 Richards and Dexter 41. LM Crow
Page 476 and 477: 24 Mixed Sweetener Functionality Ab
Page 478 and 479: Mixed Sweetener Functionality 465 2
Page 480 and 481: Mixed Sweetener Functionality 467 T
Page 484 and 485: Mixed Sweetener Functionality 471 F
Page 492 and 493: Mixed Sweetener Functionality 479 I
Page 494 and 495: 25 Aspartame-Acesulfame: Twinsweet
Page 496 and 497: Aspartame-Acesulfame: Twinsweet 483
Page 512 and 513: 26 Polydextrose Helen Mitchell Dani
Page 514 and 515: Polydextrose 501 Table 1 Approximat
Page 516 and 517: Polydextrose 503 at 25°C. Polydext
Page 518 and 519: Polydextrose 505 Figure 4 Hygroscop
Page 520 and 521: Polydextrose 507 Table 5 Functional
Page 524 and 525: Polydextrose 511 providing bulk, mo
Page 526 and 527: Polydextrose 513 H. Soft Candy The
Page 528 and 529: Polydextrose 515 B. International T
Page 530: Polydextrose 517 chemical and econo
Page 533 and 534: 520 Deis I. FAT IS ESSENTIAL AND FU
Page 535 and 536: 522 Deis Figure 1 Ingredient suppor
Page 537 and 538: 524 Deis binding water, thus provid
Page 539 and 540: 526 Deis The U.S. Department of Agr
Page 541 and 542: 528 Deis stabilizer, thickener, or
Page 543 and 544: 530 Deis mouth feel and rate of gel
Page 545 and 546: 532 Deis Figure 4 Structure of glyc
Page 547 and 548: 534 Deis Table 4 General Categories
Page 549 and 550: 536 Deis ninths of the fat availabl
Page 551 and 552: 538 Deis the same function in all f
Page 553 and 554: 540 Deis 28. Anon. Glycerine: like
Page 555 and 556: 542 Index [Alitame] solubility, 33
Page 557 and 558: 544 Index [Erythritol] gastrointest
Page 559 and 560: 546 Index [High fructose corn syrup
Page 561 and 562: 548 Index Mogrosides, 211-213 prope
Page 563 and 564: 550 Index [Polyols] isomalt, 265-28
Page 565 and 566: 552 Index [Sucralose] safety, 189-1
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