Title: Alternative Sweeteners

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Xylitol 363 BL Horecker, K Lang, Y Takagi, eds. Pentoses and Pentitols. Berlin, Springer- Verlag, 1969, pp 316–325. 184. H Foerster, S Boecker, A Walther. Verwendung von Xylit als Zuckeraustauschstoff bei diabetischen Kindern. Fortschr Med 95:99–102, 1977. 185. RA Bonner, DC Laine, BJ Hoogwerf, FC Goetz. Effects of xylitol, fructose and sucrose in types I and II diabetics: A controlled, cross-over diet study on a clinial research center. Diabetes 31 (Suppl. 2): 80A (Abstr.), 1982. 186. LKR Shanbhogue, WJ Chwals, M Weintraub, GL Blackburn, BR Bistrian. Parenteral nutrition in the surgical patient. Br J Surg 74:172–180, 1987. 187. JE Schmitz, R Doelp, KH Altemeyer, A Gruenert, FW Ahnefeld. Parenterale Ernährung: Stoffwechsel und Substrate. Arzneimit-teltherapie 3:162–172, 1985. 188. RR Wolfe, F O’Donneil Jr, MD Stone, DA Richmand, JF Burke. Investigation of factors determining the optimal glucose infusion rate in total parenteral nutrition. Metabolism 29:892–900, 1980. 189. R Doelp, A Gruenert, E Schmitz, FW Ahnefeld. Klinische Untersuchungen zur periphervenösen parenteralen Ernährung. Beitr Infusionstherapie klin Ernähr 16: 64–76, 1986. 190. M Georgieff, LL Moldawer, BR Bistrian, GL Blackburn. Mechanisms for the protein-sparing action of xylitol during partial parenteral feeding after trauma. Surg Forum 35:105–108, 1984. 191. W Behrendt, C Minale, G Giani. Parenterale Ernährung nach herzchirurgischen Operationen. Infusionstherapie 11:316–322, 1984. 192. M Semsroth, K Steinbereithner. Stickstoffmetabolismus und renale Aminosäurenausscheidung während totaler parenteraler Ernährung hypermetaboler Patienten mit verschiedenen Kohlenhydratregimen. Infusionstherapie 12:136–148, 1985. 193. M Georgieff. Zur Stoffwechselwirkung von intravenös verabreichter Glukose, Xylit oder Glyzerin während unterschiedlicher Dosierung und Kombination. Beitr Infusionstherapie klin Ernähr 16:103–119, 1986. 194. C Dillier, A Leutenegger. Vereinfachung der parenteralen Ernährungstherapie durch eine neue, gebrauchsfertige all-in-one-Lösung, presented at the Annual Meeting of the Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Ernährungsforschung, March 5, 1988. 195. HG Zimmer, E Gerlach. Stimulation of myocardial adenine nucleotide biosynthesis by pentoses and pentitols. Pflügers Arch 376:223–227, 1978. 196. HG Zimmer, et al. Combination of ribose with calcium antagonist and β-blocker treatment in closed-chest rats. J Mol Cell Cardiol 19:635–639, 1987. 197. JF McAnulty, JH Southard, FO Belzer. Improved maintenance of adenosine triphosphate in five-day perfused kidneys with adenine and ribose. Transplant Proc 19:1376–1379, 1987. 198. V Stigge, D Strauss, H Roigas, HJ Raderecht. Verbesserte Erhaltung der zellulären Konzentration von 2,3-Diphosphoglyzerat im Konservenblut durch Zusatz von Xylit. Dtsch Ges Wesen 28:1805–1810, 1973. 199. S Vora. Metabolic manipulation of key glycolytic enzymes: A novel proposal for the maintenance of red cell 2,3-DPG and ATP levels during storage. Biomed Biochim Acta 46:285–289, 1987. 200. T Asakura, K Adachi, H Yoshikawa. Reduction of oxidized glutathione by xylitol. J Biochem 67:731–733, 1970.
364 Olinger and Pepper 201. JL Pousset, B Boum, A Cavé. Action antihémolytique du xylitol isolé des écorces de carica papaya. J Med Plant Res 41:40–47, 1981. 202. WA Ukab, J Sato, YM Wang, J van Eys. Xylitol mediated amelioration of acetylphenylhydrazine-induced hemolysis in rabbits. Metabolism 30:1053–1059, 1981. 203. T Tanaka, H Arimura. Validity of xylitol for management of cardiac arrhythmia during anesthesia. J Uoeh 1:365–368, 1979. 204. N Yoshimura, H Yamada, M Haraguchi. Anti-arrhythmic effect of xylitol during anesthesia. Jap J Anesthesiol 28:841–848, 1979. 205. ER Froesch. Parenterale Ernährung: Glucose oder Glucoseersatzstoffe? Schweiz Med Wochenschr 108:813–815, 1978. 206. K Korttila, MAK Mattila. Increased serum concentrations of lactic, pyruvic and uric acid and bilirubin after postoperative xylitol infusion. Acta Anesthesiol Scand 23:273–277, 1979. 207. RAJ Conyers, AM Rofe, R Bais, HM James, JB Edwards, DW Thomas, RG Edwards. The metabolic production of oxalate from xylitol. Int Z Vitam Ernährungsforsch (Beih.) 28:9–28, 1985. 208. B Ludwig, E Schindler, J Bohl, J Pfeiffer, G Kremer. Reno-cerebral oxalosis induced by xylitol. Neuroradiology 26:517–521, 1984. 209. RG Galaske, M Burdelski, J Brodehl. Primär polyurisches Nierenversagen und akute gelbe Leberdystrophie nach Infusion von Zuckeraustauschstoffen im Kindesalter. Dtsch med Wschr 111:978–983, 1986. 210. K Rosenstiel. Nierenversagen nach Infusion von Zuckeraustauschstoffen. Dtsch med Wschr 111:1340–1341, 1986. 211. R Schroeder. Beachting der Dosierungsgrenzen für Xylit bei der parenteralen Ernährung. Dtsch med Wschr 109:1047–1048, 1984. 212. J Pfeiffer, E Danner, PF Schmidt. Oxalate-induced encephalitic reactions to polyolcontaining infusions during intensive care. Clin Neuropathol 3:76–87, 1984. 213. S Mori, T Beppu. Secondary renal oxalosis: A statistical analysis of its possible causes. Acta Pathol Jpn 33:661–669, 1983. 214. A Baer, D Loehlein. Limited role of endogenous glycolate as oxalate precursor in xylitol-infused patients. Contr Nephrol 58:160–163, 1987. 215. WHO/FAO. Summary of toxicological data of certain food additives, Twenty-first Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Geneva, WHO Technical Report Series No. 617, 1977, pp 124–147. 216. WHO/FAO. Summary of toxicological data of certain food additives and contaminants, Twenty-second Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Geneva, WHO Technical Report Series No. 631, 1978, pp 28–34. 217. A Baer. Sugars and adrenomedullary proliferative lesions: The effects of lactose and various polyalcohols. J Am Coll Toxicol 7:71–81, 1988. 218. Life Sciences Research Office. Health aspects of sugar alcohols and lactose. Report prepared for the Bureau of Foods, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC under Contract No. FDA 223-2020 by the Life Sciences Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Bethesda, MD, 1986, p 85. 219. 46th JECFA. Toxicological significance of proliferative lesions of the adrenal medulla in rats fed polyols and other poorly digestible carbohydrates, In: Evaluation
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ISBN: 0-8247-0437-1 This book is pr
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iv Preface these sweeteners are bei
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vi Contents 7. Tagatose 105 Hans Be
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Contributors Sue E. Andress The Nut
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Contributors xi Carolyn M. Merkel M
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1 Alternative Sweeteners: An Overvi
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Overview 3 II. RELATIVE SWEETNESS P
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Overview 5 IV. INTERNATIONAL REGULA
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Overview 7 V. U.S. REGULATION OF SW
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Overview 9 General recognition of s
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Overview 11 the maximum dietary lev
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2 Acesulfame K Gert-Wolfhard von Ry
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Acesulfame K 15 Figure 3 Acesulfame
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Acesulfame K 17 Figure 4 Sweetness
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Acesulfame K 19 The acute oral toxi
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Acesulfame K 21 Table 2 Stability o
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Acesulfame K 23 were preferred over
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Acesulfame K 25 losses during bakin
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Acesulfame K 27 All methods describ
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Acesulfame K 29 24. Report of the S
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3 Alitame Michael H. Auerbach Danis
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Alitame 33 IV. SOLUBILITY At the is
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Alitame 35 Figure 3 Alitame and asp
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Alitame 37 Figure 5 Metabolism of a
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Alitame 39 autonomic, gastrointesti
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4 Aspartame Harriett H. Butchko, W.
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Aspartame 43 Figure 2 Principal con
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Aspartame 45 A wide range exists ov
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Aspartame 47 Figure 4 Dietary intak
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Aspartame 49 day for 60-kg adults (
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Aspartame 51 mood, and behavior (88
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Aspartame 53 VI. WORLDWIDE REGULATO
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Aspartame 55 30. A Bar, C Biermann.
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Aspartame 57 67. HH Butchko, C Tsch
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Aspartame 59 104. AF Stokes, A Belg
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Aspartame 61 144. D Squillacote. As
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64 Bopp and Price Figure 1 Structur
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66 Bopp and Price Table 1 Regulator
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68 Bopp and Price V. ADMIXTURE POTE
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70 Bopp and Price and thickeners (1
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72 Bopp and Price XII. METABOLISM C
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74 Bopp and Price sodium cyclamate
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76 Bopp and Price ied during the pa
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78 Bopp and Price the studies invol
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80 Bopp and Price 0.42 µg/ml and w
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82 Bopp and Price 4. U.S. Patent No
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84 Bopp and Price 48. SM Sieber, RH
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6 Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone Fra
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 89 Fi
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 91 Fi
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 93 in
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 95 ot
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 97 Ta
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 99 th
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 101 c
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Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone 103 5
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7 Tagatose Hans Bertelsen and Søre
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Tagatose 107 the same type of Food
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Tagatose 109 in pigs according to m
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Tagatose 111 IV. USE OF D-TAGATOSE
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Tagatose 113 rinsing periods or dur
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Tagatose 115 anaerobic bacterial fe
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Tagatose 117 The intestines of both
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Tagatose 119 Table 1 Relative Sweet
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Tagatose 121 D. Hygroscopicity Taga
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Tagatose 123 Table 2 Heat of Soluti
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Tagatose 125 In conclusion, tagatos
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Tagatose 127 24. BB Jensen, B Buema
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130 Stargel et al. Figure 1 Compari
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132 Stargel et al. Figure 2 Matrix
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134 Stargel et al. ness of neotame
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136 Stargel et al. Figure 4 Taste p
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138 Stargel et al. Table 1 Solubili
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140 Stargel et al. study strains in
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142 Stargel et al. to 10,000 µg/pl
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144 Stargel et al. for general use
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9 Saccharin Ronald L. Pearson PMC S
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Saccharin 149 proved for use in the
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Saccharin 151 was added to sodium d
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Saccharin 153 Table 2 Economics of
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Saccharin 155 Table 4 Saccharin Adm
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Table 6 Flavor Profile and Cost Com
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Saccharin 159 Figure 5 Hydrolysis o
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Saccharin 161 malian repellant (52,
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Saccharin 163 REFERENCES 1. GE DuBo
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Saccharin 165 67. GP Schoenig, et a
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168 Kinghorn et al. herbarium speci
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170 Kinghorn et al. Figure 1 Struct
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172 Kinghorn et al. V. USE AND ADMI
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174 Kinghorn et al. sulting in the
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176 Kinghorn et al. Figure 2 Struct
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178 Kinghorn et al. iol administere
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180 Kinghorn et al. cus mutans, or
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182 Kinghorn et al. a natural sweet
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11 Sucralose Leslie A. Goldsmith an
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Sucralose 187 Figure 2 Sweeteness i
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Sucralose 189 cant difference was f
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Sucralose 191 fructose, and/or insu
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Sucralose 193 Figure 4 Sucralose so
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Sucralose 195 Figure 6 Viscosities
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Sucralose 197 Table 2 Sucralose Int
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Sucralose 199 tively, compared with
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Sucralose 201 Figure 10 Breakdown o
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Sucralose 203 Table 3 Percent Mass
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Sucralose 205 Table 4 Initial Appli
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Sucralose 207 4. Sucralose Safety A
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210 Kinghorn and Compadre establish
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212 Kinghorn and Compadre grosvenor
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214 Kinghorn and Compadre form. Phy
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216 Kinghorn and Compadre of the de
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218 Kinghorn and Compadre Figure 5
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226 Kinghorn and Compadre sweet tas
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230 Kinghorn and Compadre 5. O Tana
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232 Kinghorn and Compadre 41. S Nir
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13 Erythritol Milda E. Embuscado an
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Erythritol 237 The commercial produ
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Table 2 Properties of Erythritol Co
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Erythritol 241 used to obtain the d
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Erythritol 243 crose stabilized and
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Erythritol 245 Figure 4 (A) Rate of
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Table 6 Assessment Criteria for the
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Table 7 Summary of Pivotal Toxicity
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Erythritol 251 VI. FOOD AND PHARMAC
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Erythritol 253 5. C Servo, J Pabo,
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14 Hydrogenated Starch Hydrolysates
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Figure 1 (a) Chemical structures fo
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Hydrogenated Starch Hydrolysates an
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15 Isomalt Marie-Christel Wijers* P
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Isomalt 267 GPM depends on the isom
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Isomalt 269 IV. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PR
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Isomalt 271 temperature than sucros
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Isomalt 273 C. Diabetics A number o
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Isomalt 275 Figure 7 Changes in wei
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Isomalt 277 C. Chewing Gum Sticks,
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Isomalt 279 isomalt is significantl
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Isomalt 281 der Sorbit-Toleranz ges
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16 Maltitol Kazuaki Kato Towa Chemi
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Maltitol 285 Like the other polyols
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Maltitol 287 of shape over time), h
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Maltitol 289 results of this confer
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Maltitol 291 available on certain p
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Maltitol 293 Table 3 Worldwide Stat
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Maltitol 295 alcohol. Unpublished r
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298 Mesters et al. Figure 1 The che
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300 Mesters et al. rium and equal m
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302 Mesters et al. sugars are then
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304 Mesters et al. Figure 2 Telemet
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306 Mesters et al. Figure 3 Moistur
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308 Mesters et al. Figure 6 Viscosi
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310 Mesters et al. tose are the mai
Page 325 and 326: 312 Mesters et al. Figure 8 The wat
Page 327 and 328: 314 Mesters et al. food containing
Page 330 and 331: 18 Sorbitol and Mannitol Anh S. Le
Page 332 and 333: Sorbitol and Mannitol 319 Figure 2
Page 334 and 335: Table 1 Physical Properties of the
Page 336 and 337: Sorbitol and Mannitol 323 Figure 4
Page 338 and 339: Sorbitol and Mannitol 325 bases are
Page 340 and 341: Sorbitol and Mannitol 327 is used a
Page 342 and 343: Sorbitol and Mannitol 329 ‘‘cap
Page 344 and 345: Sorbitol and Mannitol 331 that mann
Page 346 and 347: Sorbitol and Mannitol 333 Mannitol
Page 348 and 349: 19 Xylitol Philip M. Olinger Polyol
Page 350 and 351: Xylitol 337 Milled forms of xylitol
Page 352 and 353: Xylitol 339 Table 2 Solubility of S
Page 354 and 355: Xylitol 341 tol in a fluoride tooth
Page 356 and 357: Xylitol 343 The recognition of xyli
Page 358 and 359: Xylitol 345 tion of the availabilit
Page 360 and 361: Xylitol 347 grow and metabolize opt
Page 362 and 363: Xylitol 349 VIII. USE OF XYLITOL AS
Page 364 and 365: Xylitol 351 IX. USE OF XYLITOL IN P
Page 366 and 367: Xylitol 353 Human tolerance of high
Page 368 and 369: Xylitol 355 29. CS Gong, TA Claypoo
Page 370 and 371: Xylitol 357 71. JDB Featherstone, T
Page 372 and 373: Xylitol 359 112. JS Van der Hoeven.
Page 374 and 375: Xylitol 361 tans omz 176 by xylitol
Page 378: Xylitol 365 of Certain Food Additiv
Page 381 and 382: 368 White and Osberger II. MANUFACT
Page 383 and 384: 370 White and Osberger scribe impro
Page 385 and 386: 372 White and Osberger Figure 1 Cyc
Page 387 and 388: 374 White and Osberger When asparta
Page 389 and 390: 376 White and Osberger Table 5 Temp
Page 391 and 392: 378 White and Osberger Figure 3 Met
Page 393 and 394: 380 White and Osberger Figure 5 Com
Page 395 and 396: 382 White and Osberger Table 6 Glyc
Page 397 and 398: 384 White and Osberger Table 8 Low-
Page 399 and 400: 386 White and Osberger F. Confectio
Page 401 and 402: 388 White and Osberger In 1993, Vui
Page 403 and 404: 390 White and Osberger 18. AL Forbe
Page 405 and 406: 392 Buck Table 1 Market Division be
Page 407 and 408: 394 Buck Table 3 World HFS Consumpt
Page 409 and 410: 396 Buck Figure 3 Production of 42%
Page 411 and 412: 398 Buck Table 4 Typical Characteri
Page 413 and 414: 400 Buck Table 5 Effect of Temperat
Page 415 and 416: 402 Buck Table 7 International Soci
Page 417 and 418: 404 Buck Because of the high purity
Page 419 and 420: 406 Buck VII. APPLICATIONS HFCS rep
Page 421 and 422: 408 Buck is a benefit and in other
Page 423 and 424: 410 Buck 1986. This evaluation conc
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22 Isomaltulose William E. Irwin* P
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Isomaltulose 415 Figure 2 Isosweet
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Isomaltulose 417 Figure 3 Solubilit
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Isomaltulose 419 Figure 6 Plasma in
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Isomaltulose 421 6. Dreissig VW, Lu
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424 Richards and Dexter various pla
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426 Richards and Dexter from assays
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428 Richards and Dexter desiccation
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430 Richards and Dexter 2. Taste Qu
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432 Richards and Dexter parative da
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434 Richards and Dexter Table 3 Com
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436 Richards and Dexter dissipate t
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438 Richards and Dexter unpublished
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440 Richards and Dexter IX. SHELF-L
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Figure 7 Egg white (95 g) was mixed
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444 Richards and Dexter Figure 10 B
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446 Richards and Dexter Figure 12 O
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448 Richards and Dexter Figure 14 T
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450 Richards and Dexter XIII. CARIO
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452 Richards and Dexter tions was s
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454 Richards and Dexter activity, a
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456 Richards and Dexter E. 14-day T
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458 Richards and Dexter 3. J Leibow
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460 Richards and Dexter 41. LM Crow
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24 Mixed Sweetener Functionality Ab
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Mixed Sweetener Functionality 465 2
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Mixed Sweetener Functionality 467 T
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Mixed Sweetener Functionality 471 F
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Mixed Sweetener Functionality 479 I
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25 Aspartame-Acesulfame: Twinsweet
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Aspartame-Acesulfame: Twinsweet 483
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26 Polydextrose Helen Mitchell Dani
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Polydextrose 501 Table 1 Approximat
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Polydextrose 503 at 25°C. Polydext
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Polydextrose 505 Figure 4 Hygroscop
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Polydextrose 507 Table 5 Functional
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Polydextrose 509 F. Fiber Polydextr
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Polydextrose 511 providing bulk, mo
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Polydextrose 513 H. Soft Candy The
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Polydextrose 515 B. International T
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Polydextrose 517 chemical and econo
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520 Deis I. FAT IS ESSENTIAL AND FU
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522 Deis Figure 1 Ingredient suppor
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524 Deis binding water, thus provid
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526 Deis The U.S. Department of Agr
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528 Deis stabilizer, thickener, or
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530 Deis mouth feel and rate of gel
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532 Deis Figure 4 Structure of glyc
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534 Deis Table 4 General Categories
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536 Deis ninths of the fat availabl
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538 Deis the same function in all f
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540 Deis 28. Anon. Glycerine: like
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542 Index [Alitame] solubility, 33
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544 Index [Erythritol] gastrointest
Page 559 and 560:
546 Index [High fructose corn syrup
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548 Index Mogrosides, 211-213 prope
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550 Index [Polyols] isomalt, 265-28
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552 Index [Sucralose] safety, 189-1
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