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2 0 0 6 170 / CHAPTER 7 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 17. Among developing countries, there are several interesting exceptions to the tendency for female literacy rates to be lower than those for men. For example, in Brazil, Colombia, Honduras, Jamaica, Lesotho, Malta, Nicaragua, the Philippines, Saint Lucia and Seychelles, the differences between the male and the female literacy rates are either insignificant or favour women (see Chapter 2). 18. This emergent tendency of gender disparities in favour of young women should be examined in relation to similar tendencies in educational achievement and educational attainment, including primary completion rates. capita income and poverty rates for countries with large illiterate populations and low adult literacy rates. This table illustrates that illiteracy tends to prevail in low-income, often heavily indebted countries with widespread household poverty. Social and demographic disparities in literacy rates Gender Gender disparities are either non-existent or minimal in countries with adult literacy rates at 95% or above. In almost all other countries, men have better reading and writing skills than women. On average, the literacy gaps between adult men and women are largest in South and West Asia (70% vs 46%), the Arab States (73% vs 51%) and sub-Saharan Africa (68% vs 52%). The gap between the female and male literacy rates is considerably greater in countries where the overall adult literacy rate is lower (Figure 7.4). 17 Interestingly, literacy disparities favouring young women over young men (aged 15–24) occur in an increasing number of countries. For example, the GPIs in Botswana, Honduras, Jamaica, Malta, Nicaragua and the United Arab Emirates are above 1.03 for the younger age group. Overall, the number of countries (with relevant data) for which the GPI favours young women over young men increased from fifteen to twenty-two between 1990 and 2000–2004. This trend is more pronounced in Latin America and the Caribbean, in eastern and southern Africa, and in countries with higher literacy rates. 18 Age In all countries, literacy rates vary across age groups. Typically, individuals aged 15–34 have higher literacy levels than those aged 45 and older, reflecting in large part the expansion of mass schooling throughout the world. In some countries, there are small decreases in literacy rates among younger age groups and then sharp declines among older age groups, especially after the age of 45. In other cases, the decline in literacy rates across age groups is fairly linear. Unsurprisingly, age disparities are smaller in high-literacy countries and larger in low-literacy countries. In countries with comparatively low literacy levels (e.g. Angola, Burundi, the Gambia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Nepal, Pakistan, Rwanda and Zambia), the literacy rate among 25- to 34-year-olds is twice that of those aged 65 and older. Further evidence of age disparities in adult literacy can be seen in Figure 7.7, which plots literacy rates among four select age groups in several developing regions. Age disparities in adult literacy tend to be more prominent in the Arab States than in Asia or in Latin America and the Caribbean. Six countries in eastern and southern Africa (Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, the United Republic of Tanzania, Madagascar and Kenya) have lower literacy rates among 15- to 24-year-olds than among 25- to Figure 7.7: Literacy rates for selected age groups, 2000—2004 100 Arab States Asia Latin America and the Caribbean 80 Adult literacy rate (%) 60 40 20 15–24 25–34 45–54 55–64 0 Jordan Qatar Bahrain Syrian AR Saudi Arabia Tunisia Algeria Sudan Egypt Mauritania Maldives Philippines Thailand Singapore China Sri Lanka Myanmar Turkey Cambodia Lao PDR India Papua N. Guinea Pakistan Nepal Cuba Argentina Chile Colombia Venezuela Panama Paraguay Ecuador Mexico Saint Lucia Brazil Suriname Dominican Rep. Peru Bolivia Honduras Belize Nicaragua Guatemala Source: UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) 2000, taken from Carr-Hill (2005a).
MAPPING THE GLOBAL LITERACY CHALLENGE / 171 Figure 7.8: Adult literacy rates by urban/rural residence, 2000—2004 100 Adult literacy rate (%) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Urban Rural Niger Sierra Leone Chad Guinea-Bissau Gambia Senegal Côte d’Ivoire Somalia Togo Sudan Angola Comores D. R. Congo Cameroon Note: Only includes countries with an adult literacy rate lower than 95%. Source: UNICEF MICS 2000, taken from Carr-Hill (2005a). Zambia Burundi Lao PDR Rwanda Madagascar Kenya Bolivia Swaziland S. Tome/Principe Dominican Rep. Lesotho Suriname Viet Nam Myanmar Philippines Bosnia/Herzeg. 34-year-olds. This exceptional pattern is mainly prevalent among younger men. 19 Apparently, severe political and economic conditions contributed to this literacy decline, including armed conflict, unemployment, rising household costs of schooling and perceptions of limited future income prospects from becoming literate (see Chapter 8). Geographical disparities Rural residents have lower literacy levels than urban residents, whether measured from census data (e.g. Wagner, 2000) or from household data (Figure 7.8). 20 The disparities between urban and rural populations tend to be greater in those poorer countries in which overall literacy rates are comparatively low. In large measure, the influence of urbanization on literacy acquisition and retention reflects differences in access to formal schooling, higher-quality education and non-formal education programmes. Urban residents, in contrast to rural residents, tend also to reside in more literate environments, which are more demanding of literacy skills in written languages, and which offer greater rewards to those who possess them (see Chapter 8). Regional or provincial differences in literacy are particularly prevalent in countries with large illiterate populations. For example, census figures for Pakistan report an adult literacy rate of 72% in urban areas (e.g. the Islamabad Capital Territory), as compared with 44% in rural areas such as Baluchistan and Sindh (Choudhry, 2005). This rural/urban ratio of 0.61, while relatively low, has nearly doubled since 1972, when it stood at just 0.34. In Ethiopia, regional disparities in literacy rates range from 83% in the Addis Ababa region to 25% in the Amhara region. The overall literacy rate in rural Ethiopia is estimated at 23%, only one-third of the urban rate of 74% (Shenkut, 2005). In Morocco, rural–urban literacy disparities are extensive and compounded by gender (Table 7.8). Table 7.8: Morocco: Adult literacy rates by gender and urban/rural residence, 1990/91 and 1998/99 In Morocco, rural–urban literacy disparities are extensive and compounded by gender 19. These analyses draw upon data from the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), carried out in 2000; literacy figures are based on the respondent’s self-assessment of his/her ability to read easily or with difficulty a letter or a newspaper. 20. Census definitions of ‘urban’ and ‘rural’ areas vary considerably and increasingly add a third category – ‘peri-urban’ or ‘suburban’ – to further distinguish geographical entities in contrast to urban and rural areas. Many countries define an urban area in terms of (minimum) population size, a definition which varies from country to country: ranging from at least 1,000 and 2,000 residents (in Canada and Bolivia, respectively) to 10,000 (Spain) and 20,000 (Turkey), up to at least 50,000 residents (Republic of Korea). In other countries, where the status of an ‘urban area’ involves a binding legal decision approved through legislative or bureaucratic processes, definitions also vary. This lack of definitional uniformity confounds comparisons of urban literacy rates across countries and weakens comparative accounts of urban–rural literacy gaps. All country 1990/91 1998/99 Urban 1990/91 1998/99 Rural 1990/91 1998/99 Rural/urban ratio 1990/91 1998/99 Adult literacy rate % Total Male Female 45.3 60.5 31.7 51.7 66.2 38.1 63.3 76.5 51.4 66.3 79.0 54.5 28.2 45.3 12.8 33.1 50.1 17.0 0.45 0.59 0.25 0.50 0.63 0.31 Source: Direction de la Statistique, cited in Bougroum et al. (2005). GPI (F/M) 0.52 0.58 0.67 0.69 0.28 0.34 0.42 0.49
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EFA Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0
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Education for All UNESCO Publishing
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Foreword This fourth annual Educati
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Acknowledgements Former Director Ch
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Contents Headline messages . . . .
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List of figures, tables and text bo
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Tables 2.1: School life expectancy
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4.9: Working together for better-qu
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Literacy Literacy is: A right still
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Education for All Global Monitoring
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY / 21 25-35% of al
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY / 23 meeting the
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY / 25 builds on le
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LITERACY: THE CORE OF EDUCATION FOR
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argues that there is value in under
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EFA PROGRESS: WHERE DO WE STAND? /
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a continued heavy focus on sub-Saha
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COUNTRY EFFORTS: INCREASING MOMENTU
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INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS: TIME TO
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GOOD POLICY, GOOD PRACTICE / 237 Ta
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GOOD POLICY, GOOD PRACTICE / 243 Ta
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SETTING PRIORITIES FOR ACTION / 249
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APPENDIX 1 / 253 include values, ca
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APPENDIX 1 / 255 Figure A1.4 illust
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APPENDIX 1 / 257 Table A1.1 (contin
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APPENDIX 1 / 259 Table A1.3: Change
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APPENDIX 2 / 261 Once the GER by ge
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INTRODUCTION / 263 Statistical anne
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INTRODUCTION / 265 To fill the gaps
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INTRODUCTION / 267 Metadata for nat
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INTRODUCTION / 269 (Continued) Year
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INTRODUCTION / 271 (Continued) Year
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 273 Table 1 GNP
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 281 Table 2A YO
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 289 Table 2B BO
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 297 Table 3 GRO
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 305 Table 4 NET
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 321 Table 6 REP
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 329 Table 7 SUR
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 345 Table 9A EN
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 353 Table 9B PE
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 361 Table 10A P
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 369 Table 10B S
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 377 Table 11 Pu
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 385 Table 12 GO
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ANNEX AID DATA / 409 youth and adul
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ANNEX AID DATA / 411 Aid to basic e
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ANNEX AID DATA / 413 Basic educatio
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ANNEX AID DATA / 415 Table 3 (conti
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ANNEX AID DATA / 417
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GLOSSARY / 419 Education for All De
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GLOSSARY / 421 Literacy educator. I
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GLOSSARY / 423 Repetition rate by g
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REFERENCES / 425 Banerjee, A. and K
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REFERENCES / 427 Burchfield, S. 199
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REFERENCES / 429 Desjardins, R. and
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REFERENCES / 431 Garcia Garrido, J.
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REFERENCES / 433 Hull, G. 2003. You
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REFERENCES / 435 Lind, A. 1988. Adu
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REFERENCES / 437 Nirantar. 1997. In
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REFERENCES / 439 Reh, M. (ed.). 198
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REFERENCES / 441 Street, B. (ed.).
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REFERENCES / 443 UNHCHR. 1993. Vien
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ABBREVIATIONS / 445 Abbreviations A
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ABBREVIATIONS / 447 NIR Net intake
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