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2 0 6 0 194 / CHAPTER 8 Education for All Global Monitoring Report The single most significant factor influencing the spread of literacy worldwide over the past two centuries has been the expansion of formal schooling 10. Several economic, political, cultural and demographic factors, some of which are associated with crossnational differences in adult literacy rates, are left unexamined in this section. Poverty (or per capita product) and urbanization, for example, are correlated with literacy levels and were discussed in greater detail in Chapter 7. Conditions of high fertility and rapid population growth have slowed the rise in literacy rates and, in some cases, contributed to a growing illiterate population. The impacts of manufacturing, rising living standards, and increased availability of newspapers and inexpensive books have been, at least in Europe, mixed (Graff, 1987b; Mitch 1992). In short, different sets of factors have combined in different contexts to influence the transition to widespread literacy (or the lack thereof). Here the emphasis is on major determinants of literacy, whose impact has been substantial and consistent across a multiplicity of contexts. and adult education and learning policies and programmes. It also looks at conditions that have hindered literacy transitions and resulted in literacy stagnation and pockets of illiteracy. The impact of language on literacy is discussed later (see Languages and literacy section). 10 Establishing schools and increasing enrolment rates The single most significant factor influencing the spread of literacy worldwide over the past two centuries has been the expansion of formal schooling. Schools have been, and continue to be, the sites in which most people acquire their core literacy skills – reading, writing and ‘reckoning’. There have been, however, historical exceptions to this pattern. During the seventeenth century, in certain Nordic countries, German principalities and North American colonies, the Protestant Churches supported the compulsory education (not schooling) of children to ensure the piety of families. Out of religious conviction, parents saw to it that their children learned to read and write at home (with or without a tutor) and in church. Here the historical transition to widespread literacy pre-dated the consolidation of state school systems. Only in the eighteenth century did communities in Norway, various Swiss cantons, Dutch provinces and German Länder establish local schools, with largely religious curricula emphasizing literacy, biblical knowledge and moral character. This movement towards mass schooling was intended to replace home- and church-based instruction. Later in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, systems of compulsory mass schooling were established – first in Western and then Eastern Europe (Ramirez and Boli, 1994; Benavot and Resnik, 2005). By legally establishing the principle of compulsory attendance, nascent states became the initiator, guarantor and administrator of a system of schools. At the same time, in the United States, northern states and western territories passed statutes requiring parents to send their children to school, although primary enrolment rates, even in rural areas, were already relatively high. The southern states eventually followed suit in the twentieth century (Richardson, 1980). Thus, with the exception of the mainly Protestant areas noted above, as formal schooling became more available and enrolments increased during the nineteenth century, adult literacy rates slowly began to rise. Elsewhere, the interrelationship of compulsory schooling, enrolment expansion and adult literacy evolved differently. Countries in South and Central America, for example, passed compulsory attendance laws in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but enrolment realities lagged behind legislative ideals (Benavot and Riddle, 1988). In many of these countries, compulsory laws went unenforced (Garcia Garrido, 1986). Overall, the cross-national association between the passage of compulsory school laws and primary enrolment rates is weak (Ramirez and Ventresca, 1992). The evidence suggests that countries tend to pass compulsory education laws in the wake of political independence, a legal move reflecting official intentions, but with limited impact on actual enrolment expansion. 11 In Asia, Africa and the Arab world, various forms of formal education were well established prior to contact with the West (Collins, 2000; Craig, 1981; Herrera, 2004). Indigenous, non- Western schools (e.g. Koranic, pagoda, temple and native schools) had existed for generations, albeit with enrolments usually limited to young boys. These forms of indigenous education, mostly oriented towards inculcating religious and traditional cultural knowledge and ideals, were transformed, assimilated or destroyed as they came into contact with European school models introduced by missionary groups or colonial authorities. 12 In parts of Asia, modernizing regimes adapted European models to local contexts (e.g. Japan in the 1870s, and the Korean peninsula between 1885 and 1910). The historical record suggests that contacts between indigenous and European models of education (although characterized by unequal power relations) initiated a process of expanding access to formal schooling, especially for children from households where there was no reading or writing. As such, they represent a major turning point in the transition to widespread literacy. The unleashed dynamic of growing access to ‘modern’ forms of public and private schooling 11. Of the sixty countries that were independent by 1945, 60% had enacted compulsory education laws. Between 1945 and 2004, 125 former colonies and non-governing territories became independent in Africa, Asia, Europe and parts of the Americas; 85% of these countries had passed compulsory education laws by 2000 (Benavot and Resnik, 2005). Ramirez and Boli (1982) show that with each wave of political independence, the mean lag between independence and compulsory schooling got smaller. It was between twenty-five and fifty years in the nineteenth century and decreased to less than six years in the first half of the twentieth century. After the Second World War, most countries passed compulsory school laws within a year of independence. 12. The diffusion and influence of the United States-based school models were more limited geographically.
THE MAKING OF LITERATE SOCIETIES / 195 Figure 8.3: Mean unadjusted primary enrolment rates in developing regions, 1880 to 1935—40 Mean primary enrolment rate (%) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Caribbean South America Central America Asia Middle East/North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1935–1940 Note: Unadjusted enrolment rates refer to the number of pupils enrolled in primary schools divided by the 5-14 year-old population. Source: Benavot and Riddle (1988). can be seen in Figure 8.3, which presents regional estimates of primary enrolment rates from 1880 to 1940. 13 In South and Central America, about two out of ten school-age children attended school in 1880, whereas three to four out of ten did so by 1940. Increases in enrolment rates during this period were even greater in the Caribbean (from 24% to 59%), especially in British colonies. In Africa, Asia and the Middle East, where colonial rule predominated, the pace of primary school expansion was slow. Nevertheless, some countries (Ceylon [Sri Lanka], Japan, Lebanon, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, the Philippines, Seychelles and Thailand) experienced relatively rapid school expansion before 1940. Not surprisingly, in many of the same countries adult literacy rates were on the rise. Evidence of the strong association between educational expansion and adult literacy levels can be seen in Figure 8.4, which plots historical primary school enrolments (in the late-1930s) with subsequent adult literacy rates (circa 1950) for thirty-nine countries or territories. Contemporary evidence for the education– literacy association is reported in Table 8.1, which shows that: Both net primary enrolment rates and measures of adult educational attainment are strongly correlated with both adult and youth literacy rates. Figure 8.4: Association between unadjusted primary enrolment rate (1935—40) and adult literacy rate (circa 1950), for thirty-nine countries or territories Adult literacy rate (%) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Turkey India Israel Nicaragua Haiti 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Sources: UNESCO (1957), Benavot and Riddle (1988). 13. The regions in this figure are different from the EFA regions. Portugal Venezuela Brazil Dominican Republic Bolivia Guatemala Algeria Malaysia El Salvador Egypt Honduras Costa Rica Bulgaria Yugoslavia Panama Philippines Chile Sri Lanka Ecuador Belgium Bermuda Hungary Barbados Argentina Greece Guyana Trinidad/Tobago Puerto Rico Paraguay Fiji Cyprus Malta Thailand Reunion (France) Unadjusted primary enrolment rate (%) United States y = 0.9309x + 20.428 R 2 = 0.6058 Table 8.1: Correlations between measures of educational expansion and educational attainment, and literacy rates (Number of countries in parentheses) Net primary enrolment rate, 1998 (n = 52) Percentage of relevant population with no schooling, circa 1990 (n = 74-78) Percentage of relevant population with some primary education, circa 1990 (n = 74-78) Percentage of relevant population who completed primary education, circa 1990 (n = 74-78) Adult literacy rates 2000–2004 Youth literacy rates 2000–2004 Total Male Female Total Male Female 0.83 0.78 0.86 0.85 0.79 0.88 -0.92 -0.85 -0.94 -0.85 -0.79 -0.85 0.60 0.42 0.72 0.56 0.38 0.65 0.56 0.46 0.58 0.51 0.40 0.52 Note: The relevant population refers to one of three groups: all adults, all adult males or all adult females. Thus, for example, the correlation of -0.94 refers to the cross-national association between the percentage of all females with no schooling and the female adult literacy rate. Sources: Adult and youth literacy rates are the most recent estimates from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). Data on education attainment (for 15+ population) come from Barro and Lee (1990). Net enrolment ratios are UIS estimates from 1998.
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EFA Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0
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Education for All UNESCO Publishing
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Foreword This fourth annual Educati
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Acknowledgements Former Director Ch
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Contents Headline messages . . . .
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List of figures, tables and text bo
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Tables 2.1: School life expectancy
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4.9: Working together for better-qu
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Literacy Literacy is: A right still
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Education for All Global Monitoring
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY / 21 25-35% of al
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY / 23 meeting the
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY / 25 builds on le
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LITERACY: THE CORE OF EDUCATION FOR
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argues that there is value in under
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EFA PROGRESS: WHERE DO WE STAND? /
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a continued heavy focus on sub-Saha
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COUNTRY EFFORTS: INCREASING MOMENTU
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INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS: TIME TO
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WHY LITERACY MATTERS / 137 provided
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WHY LITERACY MATTERS / 139 limit si
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WHY LITERACY MATTERS / 141 In Nepal
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SETTING PRIORITIES FOR ACTION / 249
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APPENDIX 1 / 253 include values, ca
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APPENDIX 1 / 255 Figure A1.4 illust
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APPENDIX 1 / 257 Table A1.1 (contin
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APPENDIX 1 / 259 Table A1.3: Change
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APPENDIX 2 / 261 Once the GER by ge
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INTRODUCTION / 263 Statistical anne
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INTRODUCTION / 265 To fill the gaps
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INTRODUCTION / 267 Metadata for nat
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INTRODUCTION / 269 (Continued) Year
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INTRODUCTION / 271 (Continued) Year
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 273 Table 1 GNP
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 281 Table 2A YO
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 289 Table 2B BO
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 297 Table 3 GRO
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 305 Table 4 NET
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 321 Table 6 REP
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 329 Table 7 SUR
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 345 Table 9A EN
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 353 Table 9B PE
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 361 Table 10A P
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 363 Table 10A P
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 365 Table 10A T
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 367 Table 10A T
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 369 Table 10B S
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 377 Table 11 Pu
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STATISTICAL ANNEX / 385 Table 12 GO
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ANNEX AID DATA / 409 youth and adul
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ANNEX AID DATA / 411 Aid to basic e
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ANNEX AID DATA / 413 Basic educatio
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ANNEX AID DATA / 415 Table 3 (conti
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ANNEX AID DATA / 417
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GLOSSARY / 419 Education for All De
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GLOSSARY / 421 Literacy educator. I
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GLOSSARY / 423 Repetition rate by g
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REFERENCES / 425 Banerjee, A. and K
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REFERENCES / 427 Burchfield, S. 199
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REFERENCES / 429 Desjardins, R. and
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REFERENCES / 431 Garcia Garrido, J.
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REFERENCES / 433 Hull, G. 2003. You
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REFERENCES / 435 Lind, A. 1988. Adu
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REFERENCES / 437 Nirantar. 1997. In
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REFERENCES / 439 Reh, M. (ed.). 198
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REFERENCES / 441 Street, B. (ed.).
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REFERENCES / 443 UNHCHR. 1993. Vien
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ABBREVIATIONS / 445 Abbreviations A
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ABBREVIATIONS / 447 NIR Net intake
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