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Figure 5-7. Factors in sustained, inclusive growth 450More efficient productiveresources, entrepreneurialcapacitiesIncreased productivecapacityExpenditure on health,education and skilldevelopmentPersonal andpublic spendingspendingEconomic growthSustained andinclusive economicgrowthHigher income level forthe populationIncreased capacityutilizationIncreased productivecapacityEmployment with risingproductivityWage effectAn important element in structural transformation is theincreased opportunity for female employment through agreater availability of stable wage jobs. This has been animportant accompaniment of industrialization in allcountries. Female labour however is often concentrated inlow-productivity, low-paid jobs with limited opportunitiesfor skills development. Moving female workers to higherproductivity jobs will require policy action on multiplefronts, including better coherence among industrialpolicies, social policies, and education and trainingpolicies 451 .Box 5-4. Towards inclusive convergence in Latin America?Covering a 20-year period, ECLAC has traced patterns ofgrowth in Latin America. With a few exceptions, the period1990-2002 was characterised by “exclusive growth”, i.e.economic growth accompanied by a deterioration in theincome distribution. Fuelled by rising commodity prices,improved credit accessibility etc., between 2003-2007income convergence with growth rates approaching thoseof Asian economies took place. Social policies together withincreases in formal employment and minimum wagesacross the region made this development possible.However, the progress may not be sustainable, as theboom remains vulnerable to a reversal of commodity pricesand economic diversification remains limited 452 .The empirical literature clearly supports a positiverelationship between gender equality and development.Empowering women and securing formal work and fairwages for them have tremendous implications for povertyalleviation in any country. Increasing female employmentoffers large gains to the community, as women are moreprone to invest in education, health and nutrition for theirfamilies. In Uganda, women with traditional female jobsearn three times less than women working in maledominatedsectors. 453 World Bank estimates suggest that100-150 million people could be lifted out of poverty if96women on a global level had equal access to productiveresources (e.g. seeds, fertilizer, and extension services) 454 .However, progress towards eliminating gender-baseddisadvantages has been slow and uneven. In general,gender inequality is highest in LDCs and lowest inindustrialized countries. China stands out for its significantprogress in reducing both gender discrimination andextreme poverty. 4555.3.2. More and better jobs for inclusive developmentAs industrialization evolves, the quality of jobs tends toimproves. Besides having higher wages, manufacturing jobstypically provide better benefits (e.g., retirement plans,paid holidays, etc.) and security (e.g., life and healthinsurance, etc.) than jobs in other sectors, and tend todevelop higher levels of skills than equivalent jobs in therest of the economy. 456Globally, manufacturing accounts directly for 15-20% oftotal employment, with the manufacturing sector’spotential for direct employment generation being inverselyrelated to the level of income per capita. 457 Theemployment impact of industrialization is multipliedthrough the productive linkages that manufacturing haswith other sectors. Job-centred or labour-intensive growthhas been advocated as an effective poverty reductionstrategy (see Box 5-5). 458Box 5-5. Developing with jobs 459An ILO study covering 145 developing countries from 1980-2013 finds fundamental empirical regularitiescharacterising their structural development trajectories:What sets different income categories of developingcountries apart is job quality. These qualitative changesseem to move together, with job quality being better inmanufacturing and weaker in informal sectors. Seetechnical notes for more information.From a policy perspective, the study suggests thatregistration and formalization can be a driver of improvedjob quality. Enhanced security in employment, andtherefore enhanced duration of employment, increasescapabilities through learning by doing effects and thereforeproductivity. Registration of workers is seen as a policyinstrument enabling them potentially to access socialprotection, minimum wages and benefit from nationallegislation on improved conditions and rights.5.3.3. Education policies for industrial transformationand inclusive growthThe education necessary to build productive humancapabilities for industrial development tends to beunderprovided without active labour market policies. Inparticular, the difficulty of assessing private returns of