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Complex relationship between science and policyAs highlighted by the variety of roles that SPIs can play, therelationship between science and policy is not linear, but isbetter seen as a circular or nexus relationship. Science hasdifferent roles to play at the different stages of the policyprocess, from issues identification, to agenda setting andidentification of goals and objectives, to the identificationof tools, to monitoring and evaluation and subsequentchanges in policies. However, science is only one of theelements in the policy process, and various actors playdifferent roles at different points in the cycle. 19 Forexample, engaged individuals, civil society organizationsand the media have often played a critical role in raisingpublic awareness of important societal issues. 20 Inaddition, the role that science plays in the policy process islikely to be defined by actors who use scientific knowledgeto prove or promote a specific course of action. Thus, itmight be better to define science as an instrument ratherthan an actor. 21Box 1-2. Possible roles of science through the policy cycleProblem formulation is often led by societal actors, whocan draw on researchers to help make the formulationrigorous. Science usually can play a role in the identificationof solution options. The choice of options for action is ledby the societal players, but can draw on research to provideanalyses of the consequence of different options.Implementation is mainly led societally, but there is plentyof opportunity for research to contribute. Monitoring canbe led by the research side and operational side, with thefeedback and learning a joint activity between scientistsand other actors.Source: Stafford-Smith, M., contribution to the GSDR 2015.Expert quotes (1)“Many objectives and tools of sustainable development faceimplementation challenges of political, economic or technicalnature. There is often doubt among policymakers on therelevance of the solutions proposed by proponents ofsustainable development, especially when it comes totransitioning from small-scale, local experience togeneralizations in terms of public policy. This should be ofdirect concern to science-policy interfaces, if they intend to berelevant from the perspective of public policy. The sciencepolicyinterface should be able to study the modalities ofimplementation of public policy, and the use of differentinstruments: regulatory, economic or societal, and theirrespective effectiveness. The mandate of science-policyinterfaces should include the scientific review of publicpolicies to identify success stories, failures, and possibleadverse effects.”28Box 1-3. Science-policy interface in the UN system: someexamplesThe science-policy interface is a feature of the daily work ofmany organizations in the UN system. Organizations suchas UNESCO and UNEP have strong mandates to promotethe science-policy interface, and do so in different ways.UNESCO’s intergovernmental and international scientificprogrammes (International Hydrological Programme; Manand the Biosphere Programme; International GeosciencesProgramme; International Basic Sciences Programme;Management of Social Transformations Programme) bringtogether scientists and government representatives on arange of sustainability issues, including water, biodiversityand sustainable development, social transformations andothers. Its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commissionprovides the UN Member States with an essentialmechanism for global co-operation in the study of theocean. In addition, UNESCO also co-sponsors globalassessments that identify policy responses in differentareas and contributes to the global intergovernmentalmechanisms to strengthen the science-policy interface,such as the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity andEcosystem Services (IPBES).Apart from various thematic assessments, UNEP uses theYear Book series and the Global Environmental Outlookseries as the two main vehicles to address the sciencepolicyinterface. Over the past 15 years, the GEO reportsand their consultative and collaborative processes, haveworked to bridge the gap between science and policy byturning available scientific knowledge into informationrelevant for decision makers. GEO uses the DPSIRframework to identify and evaluate the complex andmultidimensional cause-and-effect relationships betweensociety and the environment. The upcoming GEO-6,expected to be launched in mid-2017, will build uponregional assessment processes and create a comprehensivepicture of the environmental factors contributing to humanwell-being, accompanied by an analysis of policies leadingto greater attainment of global environmental objectivesand goals.Eleven years ago UNEP published the first edition of theUNEP Year Book series alerting the world to thedevelopment of dead zones in coastal waters resulting fromexcess nitrogen seeping into the water. In the interveningperiod many more emerging issues have been identified.The eleventh edition of the UNEP Year Book looks at tenissues flagged as emerging by previous reports over thepast decade, including plastic waste in the ocean, theenvironmental impacts of excess nitrogen and marineaquaculture, air pollution’s deadly toll, and the potential ofcitizen science.